Philosophy Key Terms: Ethics, Epistemology, and More

Agency

Having to do with human freedom and the ability to practice it amidst both the field of possibilities for human action as well as the field of limitations on it.

Aporia

Greek term for an experience in which we arrive at a state of confusion when we realize that we hold contradictory viewpoints and/or premises. It's distressing but important and productive.

Argument

A set of statements, some of which (the premises) function as reasons to accept another (the conclusion).

Bad Faith

Jean-Paul Sartre's term for when people avoid the responsibility that comes with being Free. It is characterized by the inclination in people to avoid embracing circumstances/projects in their lives and make the most of them.

Categorical Imperative

Relates to Immanuel Kant's 'Deontological' theory of ethics. 'Categorical' means objectively necessary, not subjectively preferred. 'Imperative' means command.

Deontological

Literally: following the logic of duty. Name for a theory of ethics formulated by Immanuel Kant in the 18th century, where living up to duty consists in focusing on performing actions that abide by the forms of the Categorical Imperative.

Dialogue/Dialogical

An approach to philosophy practiced by Socrates and employed in written form by Plato. A conversational approach, it focuses on dramatizing how philosophy can be practiced in the back-and-forth exchange of ideas based on questions and responses.

Equity vs. Equality

Distinction made in Care Ethics (by, for example, Virginia Held). Where 'Equality' means treating people according to the same fair standards in a procedural sense, 'Equity' refers to treating people with empathy, compassion and emotional attentiveness on the ground in real and diverse situations.

Ethics

The branch of philosophy that studies morals and human conduct. It's concerned with concepts of good/bad, right/wrong, better/worse human behavior.

Meta-Ethics

When focusing on 'theories' of ethics, it is sometimes called "Meta-Ethics" - which would ask, for example, questions like "What is 'meant' by concepts of 'right/wrong" and what standards are best.

Moral Philosophy

The part of ethics that actively tries to apply these frameworks to specific social and personal issues.

Eudaimonia

Aristotle's term for Happiness, meaning the experience of living a fulfilling life with purpose and projects to fulfill that purpose.

Empiricism

An approach to epistemology that says knowledge should primarily be based on observable facts and hard evidence.

Epistemology

The branch of philosophy that focuses on trying to understand how we can best determine knowledge claims, truths, and the limits/possibilities of human understanding.

Essence

A definitive design or blueprint implanted in something to give definition and direction to its existence.

Euthyphro's Dilemma

A major aporia in Plato's 'Euthyphro' regarding the definition of 'Piety' and its relation to the gods and morality.

Facticity

Sartre's term for the aspects of our lives that define us without having any way of choosing them.

Fallacy of Affirming the Consequent

A form of bad logic that arises when one incorrectly assumes that if something is Pious, then it is also Just.

Metaphysics

The branch of philosophy that focuses on trying to understand (and make arguments about) the nature of existence/reality and the human place in it.

Political Philosophy

The branch of philosophy that is concerned with how to best govern ourselves, where the root word 'Polis' refers to cities/society.

Praxis

Practicing something in an applied way, be it the pursuit of wisdom and truth, or a moral (Aristotle would say 'virtuous') life.

Premise

A principle or assumption lying at the foundations of a viewpoint or claim.

Rationalism

An approach to epistemology that says we do best, in seeking clear/certain knowledge, to first look to resources already in the mind, not first of all to (empirical) evidence in the outside world.

Relativism

The idea that there are no overarching big epistemic or ethical universal truths, and everything is a matter of personal/cultural preference.

Subjectivity

Personhood. Where a person is a 'subject' in the sense of the human subject of existence.

Telos/Teleological

Greek term (of special importance for Aristotle, especially) referring to Purpose-seeking in life.

Transcendence

Sartre's term for the agency we do have as free beings - our 'conscious' ability to shape our lives.

Virtues

Personal traits that Aristotle (proponent of Virtue Ethics) believed were good and possible for all people to develop if they worked on themselves.

Well-Being & Flourishing

Nussbaum's terms for what can be an agreeable basic goal for all ethics, and a general criterion for evaluating what theories of ethics want to enable.