ap psychology all terms (5 steps to a 5)

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

monism

seeing mind and body as different aspects of the same thing

dualism

seeing mind and body as two different things that interact

nature-nurture controversy

the extent to which behavior results from heredity or experience

Plato and Descartes

believed that behavior is inborn (nature)

Aristotle, Locke, Watson, Skinner

believed that behavior results from experience (nurture)

structuralism

early psychological perspective that emphasized units of consciousness and identification of elements of thought using introspection

Wilhelm Wundt

founder of scientific psychology in Leipzig, Germany; studied consciousness using introspection

G. Stanley Hall

brought introspection to his lab at Johns Hopkins University in the U.S.; first president of the American Psychological Association

Edward Titchener

studied elements of consciousness at his Cornell University lab

Margaret Floy Washburn

first woman to complete her PhD in psychology

functionalism

early psychological perspective concerned with how an organism uses its perceptual abilities to adapt to its environment

William James

wrote the Principles of Psychology and is the founder of functionalism. He created the James-Lange theory and mentored Mary Whiton Calkins.

Mary Whiton Calkins

first woman president of the American Psychological Association

behavioral approach

psychological perspective concerned with behavioral reactions to stimuli; learning as a result of experience

Ivan Pavlov

known for classical conditioning of dogs

John Watson

known for experiments in classical aversive conditioning

B.F. Skinner

known for experiments in operant conditioning

aversive conditioning

a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

psychoanalytic/psychodynamic approach

psychological perspective concerned with how unconscious instincts, conflicts, motives, and defenses influence behavior

Sigmund Freud

physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

Jung, Adler, Horney, Kohut

psychodynamic psychologists

humanistic approach

psychological perspective concerned with individual potential for growth and the role of unique perceptions in growth toward one's potential

Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow

humanistic psychologists

biological approach

psychological perspective concerned with physiological and biochemical factors that determine behavior and mental processes

cognitive approach

psychological perspective concerned with how we receive, store, and process information; think/reason; and use language

Jean Piaget

studied cognitive development in children

evolutionary approach

psychological perspective concerned with how natural selection favored behaviors that contributed to survival and spread of our ancestors' genes

sociocultural approach

psychological perspective concerned with how cultural differences affect behavior

biopsychosocial model

overarching psychological perspective that integrates biological processes, psychological factors, and social forces to provide a more complete picture of behavior and mental processes than a single approach

eclectic

use of techniques and ideas from a variety of approaches

clinical psychologists

evaluate and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders

counseling psychologists

help people adapt to change or make changes in their lifestyle

developmental psychologists

study psychological development throughout the lifespan

educational psychologists

focus on how effective teaching and learning take place

experimental psychologists

do research to add new knowledge to the field

forensic psychologists

apply psychological principles to legal issues

health psychologists

concentrate on biological, psychological, and social factors involved in health and illness

industrial/organizational psychologists

aim to improve productivity and the quality of work life by applying psychological principles and methods to the workplace

neuropsychologists

explore the relationships between brain/nervous systems and behavior

personality psychologists

focus on traits, attitudes, and goals of the individual

psychometricians

focus on methods for acquiring and analyzing psychological data

social psychologists

focus on how a person's mental life and behavior are shaped by interactions with other people

theories

organized sets of concepts that explain phenomena

hypothesis

prediction of how two or more factors are likely to be related

replication

repetition of the methods used in a previous experiment to see whether the same methods will yield the same results

independent variable

the factor the researcher manipulates in a controlled experiment

dependent variable

the behavior or mental process that is measured in an experiment or quasi-experiment

population

all of the individuals in the group to which the study applies

sample

the subgroup of the population that participates in the study

random selection

choosing of members of a population so that every individual has an equal chance of being chosen to participate in a study

experimental group

the subgroup of the sample that receives the treatment or independent variable

control group

the comparison group; the subgroup of the sample that is similar to the experimental group in every way except for the presence of the independent variable

random assignment

division of the sample into groups so that every individual has an equal chance of being put in any group or condition

confounding variables

factors that cause differences between the experimental group and the control group other than the independent variable

operational definition

a description of the specific procedure used to determine the presence of a variable

experimenter bias

a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained

demand characteristics

clues participants discover about the purpose of a study that suggest how they should respond

single-blind procedure

research design in which participants don't know whether they are in the experimental or control group

double-blind

research design in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know who is in the experimental group and who is in the control group

placebo

A physical or psychological treatment given to the control group that resembles the treatment given to the experimental group, but that contains no active ingredient

placebo effect

a response to the belief that the independent variable will have an effect, rather than the actual effect of the independent variable, which can be a confounding variable

reliability

consistency or repeatability of results

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

statistics

a field that involves the analysis of numerical data about representative samples of populations

descriptive statistics

numbers that summarize a set of research data obtained from a sample

frequency distribution

an orderly arrangement of scores indicating the frequency of each score or group of scores

central tendency

average or most typical scores of a set of research data or distribution

variability

the spread or dispersion of a set of research data or distribution

standard deviation

measures the average difference between each score and the mean of the data set

normal distribution

bell-shaped curve that represents data about how lots of human characteristics are dispersed in the population

percentile score

the percentage of scores at or below a particular score (1-99)

correlation coefficient (r)

a statistical measure of the degree of relatedness or association between two sets of data that ranges from -1 to +1

inferential statistics

statistics that are used to interpret data and draw conclusions

statistical significance (p)

the condition that exists when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is less than 1 in 20 (p<.05) according to some psychologists, or less than 1 in 100 (p<.01) according to those with more stringent standards

ethical guidelines

suggested rules for acting responsibly and morally when conducting research or in clinical practice

evoked potentials

EEGs resulting from a response to a specific stimulus presented to the subject

positron emission tomography (PET)

shows brain activity when radioactively tagged glucose rushes to active neurons and emits positrons

functional MRI

shows brain activity at higher reolution than PET scan when changes in oxygen concentration in neurons alters its magnetic qualities

central nervous system (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

portion of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord; includes all of the sensory and motor neurons, and subdivisions called the autonomic and somatic nervous systems

neuropsychologists

those who explore the relationships between brain/nervous systems and behavior

lesions

precise destruction of brain tissue, enables more systematic study of the loss of function resulting from surgical removal, cutting of neural connections, or destruction by chemical applications

computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT)

creates a computerized image using x-rays passed through the brain to show structure and/or the extent of a lesion

magnetic resonance imaging

creates more detailed computerized images using a magnetic field and pulses of radio waves that cause emission of signals that depend upon the density of tissue

EEG (electroencephalogram)

an amplified tracing of brain activity produced when electrodes positioned over the scalp transmit signals about the brain's electrical activity ("brain waves") to an electroencephalograph machine

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

subdivision of PNS that includes motor nerves that innervate smooth (involuntary) and heart muscle. Its sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for "fight or flight"; the parasympathetic nervous system causes bodily changes for maintenance or rest.

sympathetic nervous system

subdivision of PNS and ANS whose stimulation results in responses that help your body deal with stressful events

parasympathetic nervous system

subdivision of PNS and ANS whose stimulation calms your body following sympathetic stimulation by restoring normal body processes

somatic nervous system

subdivision of PNS that includes motor nerves that stimulate skeletal (voluntary) muscles

spinal cord

portion of the central nervous system below the level of the medulla

brain

portion of the central nervous system above the spinal cord

convolutions

folding-in and out of the cerebral cortex that increases surface area of the brain

contralaterality

control of one side of your body by the other side of your brain

medulla oblongata

regulates heart rhythm, blood flow, breathing rate, digestion, vomiting

pons

includes portion of reticular activating system or reticular formation critical for arousal and wakefulness; sends information to and from medulla, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex

cerebellum

controls posture, equilibrium, and movement

basal ganglia

regulates initiation of movements, balance, eye movements, and posture, and functions in processing of implicit memories