(4) subcultural theories

Which sociologist sought to understand the distinctive features of “juvenile delinquency” by modifying Merton’s theoretical position?

AK Cohen (1955)

How did AK Cohen (1955) adapt Merton’s theoretical position on youth criminality?

• delinquency = collective response; whereas Merton saw people responding to their individual positions in the class structure

• argued Merton failed to account for non-utilitarian crime eg. vandalism which doesn’t produce monetary reward

What does AK Cohen (1955) suggest about youth criminality or what was known as “juvenile delinquency”?

• WC boys initially share success goals of mainstream culture but due to educational failure + standstill jobs they have little opportunity to attain these goals (Cohen = cultural deprivation theorist)

• stuck at bottom of stratification system, lower-WC boys suffer from status frustration —> unconscious guilt, resentment etc.

• turns to Freudian ideas; suggested unconscious mind uses defence mechanisms to “solve” status frustration eg. “reaction formation” wherein the mental tension is unconsciously resolved by exaggeration of the opposing tendency meaning social values are used as a guide to how not to behave ~ delinquent subculture represents inversion of mainstream culture

• due to alternative norms + values, vandalism etc. offer recognition + prestige in eyes of peers; can be successful in terms of deviant values

How can AK Cohen’s (1955) ideas about youth criminality or what was known as “juvenile delinquency” be criticised?

• Walter Miller: delinquency not product of status but reflection of emotional attachment of WC boys to 6 focal concerns of “LC culture” into which they had been socialised:

  • trouble

  • toughness

  • smartness

  • excitement

  • fate

  • autonomy

• David Matza: questioned idea that delinquents are strongly opposed to mainstream values; USA research suggested majority of “delinquent” youth accepted most mainstream values but only occasionally/ in special circumstances committed offences ~ they “drifted” into delinquency with no commitment to these values

How can AK Cohen’s (1955) ideas about youth criminality or what was known as “juvenile delinquency” be positively evaluated?

• explains seemingly senseless acts eg. vandalism by explaining their emergence from a process that leads to the inversion of mainstream values

• broke new grounds by integrating psychology into sociology

Which book combined and developed ideas of Merton and Cohen?

“Delinquency and Opportunity” ~ Coward and Ohlin (1961)

What did Cloward and Ohlin argue in their book “Delinquency and Opportunity” (1961)?

• neither Merton nor Ohlin recognised that delinquency took many forms eg. acquisitive crime

• Merton had explained deviance in terms of legitimate opportunity structure but failed to consider “illegitimate opportunity structures”

What 3 different types of delinquent subcultures did Cloward and Ohlin identify in their book “Delinquency and Opportunity” (1961)?

1. criminal subcultures

   • emerge often in areas with established pattern of organised adult crime

   • “learning environment” is provided & youth are exposed to deviant values + criminal role models

   • those performing well given opportunity to rise in criminal hierarchy

   • mostly concerned with acquisitive crime

2. conflict subcultures

   • develop in areas where youth have little access to illegitimate opportunity structures

   • little organised adult crime to provide an “apprenticeship”

   • areas often lack unity, preventing stable criminal subculture & blocking access to both legitimate + illegitimate opportunity structures

   • response = gang violence, releasing frustration

3. retreatist subcultures

   • some WC adolescents form retreatist subcultures, organised mainly around illegal drug use, because they have failed to succeed via both illegitimate + legitimate structures

How can “Delinquency and Opportunity” by Cloward and Ohlin (1961) be criticised?

• the criticisms made of AK Cohen’s theory by Miller + Matza (not all delinquents are opposed to mainstream values & committed to delinquent gangs) also apply to Cloward + Ohlin

• exclusive focus on male delinquency reflects era of theories ~ unclear whether theory could be developed for female delinquency

How can “Delinquency and Opportunity” by Cloward and Ohlin (1961) be positively evaluated?

• application of strain theory offers plausible way of understanding how strain can lead to variety of delinquent responses

• idea of “illegitimate opportunity structures” broadens understanding of pathways into crime + delinquency

How have Cloward and Ohlins’ theories from “Delinquency and Opportunity” been applied?

• Simon Winlow (2001) studied changing masculinities in Sunderland, using work of Cloward + Ohlin to explain existence of WC subculture valuing “hardness” among men

  • argues in modern industrial era there were few opportunities to make a living from crime ~ little organised crime so no significant illegitimate opportunities → conflict subculture developed, characterised by petty crime + use of violence to gain status

  • violence was “a crucial signifier of self-image”

  • this was still evident in post-industrial Sunderland

• Nigel South (1997) wrote about supply of illegal drugs in UK towns/cities

  • argued drug trade is largely based around disorganised crime

  • some drug users = part of retreatist subculture

  • though experimentation with illegal drugs doesn’t seem to vary much between social groups, addiction + regular use are more likely to develop among WC youth

• Sudhir Venkatesh (2009) researched drug gangs in Chicago housing projects

  • found hierarchical, organised criminal subculture, similar to that described by Cloward + Ohlin

  • included dif. levels of management backed up by large no.s of street dealers

  • gangs heavily involved in running “projects” (social housing in Chicago’s poorest areas)

  • gang leader JT was developing criminal career & gaining status among interlinked networks of criminal gangs

KEY TERM

crime that appears to serve no useful purposes and has no monetary gain

non-utilitarian crime

KEY TERM

general feelings of annoyance generated by the inability to acquire social respect

status frustration