AP Gov study guide

Ap US Gov

Social Contract

An implicit agreement among the members of a society to cooperate for social benefits, such as protection and mutual welfare, often used to justify government authority.

Enlightenment

A philosophical movement in the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of authority, leading to ideas about democracy and human rights.

Thomas Hobbes

A 17th-century philosopher known for his social contract theory, particularly in his work "Leviathan," where he argued that an absolute sovereign is necessary to maintain order and prevent chaos.

Rule of Law

The principle that all individuals and institutions are subject to and accountable under the law, which is fairly applied and enforced. It ensures that no one is above the law, maintaining order and protecting individual rights.

John Locke

A 17th-century philosopher often regarded as the father of liberalism, he proposed the concepts of natural rights and government by consent. His ideas greatly influenced the development of modern democracy and human rights.

Empiricism

A philosophical theory that emphasizes knowledge coming from sensory experience, foundational to the scientific method.

Natural Rights

Fundamental rights inherent to all individuals, often including life, liberty, and property, which governments are created to protect.

Charles Montesquieu

A French political philosopher best known for his work "The Spirit of the Laws," which outlined the theory of separation of powers in government to prevent tyranny.

Checks and Balances

A system in which the powers of government are divided among separate branches to prevent any one branch from gaining too much control.

Jean Rousseau

A French philosopher known for his work "The Social Contract," which argued that government should be based on the general will of the people and emphasized direct democracy.

Voltaire

An Enlightenment thinker who advocated for freedom of speech, separation of church and state, and civil liberties. His writings often criticized organized religion and intolerance.

Participatory Democracy

A model of democracy emphasizing broad participation of constituents in political decision-making, where citizens engage directly in the selection of policies and leaders.

Pluralist Democracy

A model of democracy that recognizes multiple voices and interest groups in the political process, emphasizing the role of competition among diverse groups to influence policymaking.

Elite Democracy

A model of democracy that prioritizes a small, elite group of individuals who hold decision-making power, often viewing the general populace as less capable of making informed choices.

Republicanism

A political ideology that emphasizes the importance of a government representing the interests of the people, often through elected representatives, and the safeguarding of individual rights.

Representative Democracy

A form of democracy in which elected officials represent the citizens' interests and make decisions on their behalf, ensuring that the government reflects the will of the people.

Popular Sovereignty

The principle that government derives its authority from the consent of the governed, meaning that the people hold the ultimate power in a democratic system.

Declaration of Independence

A historic document adopted on July 4, 1776, asserting the American colonies' right to self-govern and outlining grievances against British rule.

Federalism

A system of governance where power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units, allowing them to operate independently in certain areas.

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

Strengths:

• creates federalism

• ends the Revolutionary War on favorable terms

• establishes the Northwest Ordinance

Weaknesses:

• trade declines, value dropped, social disorder → shays rebellion

• could not impose taxes

• no military, national currency

• no supreme court to interpret law

• no control over taxes

• could not control states

Articles of Confederation

The first constitution of the United States, ratified in 1781, which created a loose confederation of states and a weak federal government, leading to significant governance challenges.

Constitutional Convention

A gathering in 1787 of representatives from the thirteen original states to address the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, resulting in the drafting of the United States Constitution.

Chief Executive

The head of the executive branch of government, responsible for enforcing laws and managing the operations of the federal government.

Supreme Court

The highest court in the United States, responsible for interpreting the Constitution and resolving legal disputes. It has the power of judicial review to ensure laws comply with the Constitution.

Congress

The legislative branch of the United States government, consisting of two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives, responsible for making laws.

Federalists

A political group that advocated for a strong national government and supported the ratification of the Constitution in the late 18th century, prominently including figures like Alexander Hamilton and James Madison.

Legislative Branch

The branch of government responsible for making laws, consisting of Congress, which includes the Senate and the House of Representatives.

Executive Branch

The branch of government responsible for implementing and enforcing laws, headed by the President of the United States.

Anti-Federalists

A political group that opposed a strong national government and the ratification of the Constitution, advocating for states' rights and individual liberties.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the Constitution that guarantee individual rights and freedoms, including freedom of speech, religion, and the press.

Electoral College

A body of electors established by the Constitution, responsible for formally electing the President and Vice President of the United States.

• 538 electors

Brutus No. 1

An anti-Federalist paper arguing against the ratification of the Constitution, emphasizing that a large republic would lead to the erosion of individual liberties and the dominance of a central government.

Federalist No. 10

An essay by James Madison addressing the dangers of factionalism and arguing for a large republic to control the effects of factions.

Federalist No. 51

An essay by James Madison that discusses the need for checks and balances in government to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful, emphasizing the separation of powers.

Federalist No. 70

An essay by Alexander Hamilton advocating for a strong executive branch, arguing that a single, energetic president is essential for good governance and efficiency.

Federalist No. 78

An essay by Alexander Hamilton that discusses the role of the judiciary in the government, explaining the importance of an independent judiciary and the concept of judicial review.

The Constitution

The supreme law of the land, outlining the framework of government, its powers, and the rights of the citizens.

Articles 1-3

The sections of the Constitution that establish the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government, detailing their powers and responsibilities.

Judicial Branch

The part of the government responsible for interpreting laws and administering justice, including the Supreme Court and lower courts.

Marbury V. Madison (1803)

A landmark Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review, allowing the Court to invalidate laws that it finds unconstitutional.

Article 1, Section 8

Lists the powers of Congress, including the ability to tax, regulate commerce, and declare war.

Necessary and proper clause

A clause in Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution that grants Congress the power to make all laws that are necessary and proper for carrying out its enumerated powers.

• elastic clause

Supremacy clause

A clause in Article VI of the Constitution stating that federal law takes precedence over state laws and constitutions.

Confederation

A union of states or groups that come together for a common purpose, often with limited central authority, as seen in the Articles of Confederation.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

A landmark Supreme Court case that established the principle of federal supremacy and affirmed Congress's implied powers under the Necessary and Proper Clause.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

A Supreme Court case that limited the scope of the Commerce Clause, ruling that carrying a gun in a school zone is not an economic activity that affects interstate commerce.

Commerce Clause

The clause in the U.S. Constitution that grants Congress the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, among the states, and with Native American tribes.

Delegated (enumerated) powers

The powers specifically granted to Congress by the U.S. Constitution, including the ability to levy taxes, regulate commerce, and declare war.

Reserved Powers

The powers that are not specifically granted to the federal government by the Constitution and are instead reserved for the states or the people, as outlined in the Tenth Amendment.

10th Amendment

The constitutional amendment that reserves powers not delegated to the federal government to the states or the people.

Concurrent Powers

Powers that are shared by both the federal and state governments, such as the ability to tax, build roads, and create lower courts.

Denied Powers

Powers that are prohibited to both the federal and state governments, including the ability to grant titles of nobility or deny due process.

Federal government programs

initiated to address national issues such as education, health care, and infrastructure.

Grants

Funds provided by the federal government to state or local governments for specific projects or programs, often with conditions attached.

Categorical Grants

Federal funds for specific purposes with strict regulations.

Block Grants

Federal funds provided to state or local governments with fewer restrictions, allowing more flexibility in how the money is spent.

Advantages of Federalism

• mass participation

• regional autonomy

• multi-level government

• innovative methods

• diffusion of power

• diversity in government

Disadvantages of Federalism

• lack of consistency

• inefficiency

• bureaucracy

• resistance

• inequity

Separation of Powers

The division of government responsibilities into distinct branches to limit any one branch from exercising the core functions of another. This principle is meant to prevent abuse of power and ensure a system of checks and balances.

Roles of the 3 Branches

The roles of the three branches of government are to legislate, execute, and adjudicate laws. Each branch has specific powers and responsibilities to maintain the balance of power.

Veto

The veto is the power of the executive branch to reject legislation passed by the legislature, preventing it from becoming law.

Amendment

A change or addition to the Constitution that alters its content or provisions. Amendments can address various issues and are essential for the Constitution's evolution.

Ratify

To formally approve changes or additions to the Constitution or laws.

Ratifying Convention

A gathering of delegates to approve or reject proposed amendments to the Constitution, required for ratification by the states.

Constitutional Convention

A gathering held in 1787 to create a new constitution for the United States, replacing the Articles of Confederation, where key figures such as George Washington and James Madison played significant roles.

Amendment Process

Requiring approval by two-thirds of both houses of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of the states.

State Government

• Can take any form, but must have a state constitution approved by Congress

• Most structured after federal government

• Executive branch led by governor

  • Direct state executive agencies (education, roads/building, policing)

  • Command state National Guard

  • May grant pardons and reprieves

  • Most can appoint state judges with the “advice and consent” of a state legislative body

  • Can veto state legislation

  • May use a line-item veto to reject parts of bills

Pardons and Reprieves

Decrees that forgive individuals for their crimes or delay punishment.

Line-item veto

A special form of veto that allows governors to reject specific provisions of a bill without rejecting the entire legislation.

gubernatorial veto

An executive power allowing a governor to reject specific legislation passed by the state legislature, often used in conjunction with the line-item veto.

House of Representatives

The lower chamber of Congress, composed of representatives apportioned based on state population, responsible for initiating revenue bills and impeaching federal officials.

Senate

The upper chamber of Congress, consisting of two senators from each state, responsible for confirming presidential appointments and ratifying treaties.

Census

A count of the population conducted every ten years, used to determine the apportionment of representatives in the House of Representatives and inform federal funding decisions.

Redistricting

The process of redrawing the boundaries of electoral districts, typically occurring after the census, to ensure equal representation based on population changes.

Gerrymandering

The manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor one political party over another, often resulting in distorted representation.

Incumbents

Current officeholders seeking reelection, often benefiting from advantages like name recognition and access to campaign funds.

Congressional Elections

Elections held every two years to select members of the United States Congress, including the House of Representatives and Senate.

Baker v. Carr (1962)

A landmark Supreme Court case that established the principle of "one person, one vote" by ruling that redistricting issues present justiciable questions, thereby allowing federal courts to intervene in and decide redistricting cases.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

A significant Supreme Court case that addressed gerrymandering by ruling that redistricting must comply with the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, prohibiting racial discrimination in district maps.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Legislation aimed at overcoming legal barriers at the state and local levels that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote, and ensuring voting rights for all citizens.

Racial Gerrymandering v. Political Gerrymandering

The manipulation of electoral district boundaries to disadvantage or advantage particular racial groups versus the drawing of district lines to benefit a specific political party.

Packing and Cracking

Techniques used in gerrymandering; packing concentrates voters of one type into a single district, while cracking spreads them across districts to dilute their voting power.

Hijacking v. Kidnapping

Hijacking refers to the intentional manipulation of electoral districts to take away an incumbent's advantage by placing them in a less favorable district, while kidnapping refers to redrawing boundaries to force incumbents into the same district, potentially leading to a primary challenge.

Budgetary

relating to the budgeting process and allocation of government funds.

Article 1, Section 8, Clause 1

grants Congress the power to tax and spend for the general welfare of the United States.

“Power of the purse”

refers to the constitutional power granted to Congress to raise and allocate money, impacting government spending and fiscal policy.

House of Ways and Means Committee

oversees spending laws and taxing

Non-Legislative tasks of congress

• oversight

• public education

• representing constituents

• constitutional amendments

• electoral duties

• impeachment

• comfirmation duties

• ratification

• investigation

Congressional Oversight

the process by which Congress monitors and reviews the actions of the executive branch and federal agencies to ensure accountability and compliance with laws.

Public Education

floor debates and committee hearings increase awareness of government/social issues and help to focus national attention

Representing constituents within the government

help constituents with the government and vote on laws; can act on complaints about federal services/agencies, sponsor those who seek contracts, and seek suggestions on improvement

Delegate Model

A theory of representation where elected officials act in accordance with the preferences and interests of their constituents, prioritizing their views in decision-making.

Trustee Model

A model of representation where elected officials use their judgment to make decisions on behalf of their constituents, rather than strictly following their wishes.

Constitutional amendments

can propose amendments by 2/3 vote in both houses or by a convention called by 2/3 of state legislatures

Electoral Duties

House can elect next president if neither candidate gets 270 votes, Senate picks VP

Impeachment

House has power over impeachment; if majority votes to impeach an official, the Senate runs the impeachment trial and convicts/removes the official from office with 2/3 of Senate votes

Confirmation Duties

Senate can approve both presidential appointments and federal officials

Ratification

only Senate can ratify treaties if 2/3 votes

Investigation

can be conducted by either a standing or committee and may last months while members gather evidence and witnesses

Legislative Process

the procedure by which proposed laws are considered, amended, and voted on by Congress.