Psychology Lecture: Memory Systems and Processes

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcard set covering fundamental memory systems, encoding/retrieval phenomena, level of processing models, and reasons for memory failure based on lecture materials.

Memory

The ability to store and retrieve information over time, which can be incomplete, biased, distorted, and influenced by context and processing capacity.

Encoding

The automatic or effortful process by which perceived sensory stimuli from surroundings are transformed into a neural code and memory in the brain.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time whenever perception ends and perceived information remains available for processing.

Retrieval

The process of recalling or remembering stored information from long-term memory when needed.

Sensory memory

A temporary memory system closely tied to sensory input that lasts only a fraction of a second, acting as a vanishing trace on the nervous system to allow continuous perception.

Short-term memory (STM)

A memory system that temporarily holds a limited amount of information in a highly accessible state and requires attention to prevent loss.

Working memory

A component of short-term memory that actively retains and manipulates information from various sources for 20 to 30 seconds, holding $7 \times \text{or} \times 2$ or $7 \frac{+}{-} 2$ items.

Short-term memory vs. Working memory

Short-term memory is focused mainly on simple storage and tested with simple tasks, while working memory involves both storage and active manipulation tested with complex tasks.

Rehearsal

The active effort of repeating or practicing information to maintain it in active working memory.

Chunking

The strategy of breaking down long or complex information into smaller, meaningful units to improve memory capacity.

Clive Wearing

A patient who suffered viral infection damage to his hippocampus and surrounding areas, resulting in anterograde and retrograde amnesia that prevents memory retention beyond 7 to 30 seconds.

Long-term memory (LTM)

A relatively permanent, stable, and nearly limitless storage system for encoded information.

Consolidation

The neural process by which encoded information becomes stored in long-term memory through the strengthening of neural connections.

Taxonomy of Memory

The structure dividing long-term memory into Explicit (conscious) memory—consisting of Episodic and Semantic branches—and Implicit (unconscious) memory—consisting of Procedural, Priming, Classical conditioning, and Nonassociative learning.

Explicit memory

Conscious, intentional memory system (also called declarative memory or 'knowing that') requiring active effort to retrieve facts and events.

Episodic memory

A type of explicit memory containing personal past experiences tied to specific times and locations.

Semantic memory

A type of explicit memory containing general world knowledge, concepts, categories, and facts independent of personal experience.

Implicit memory

An unconscious or automatic memory system expressed through actions, reactions, or responses without declarative retrieval effort.

Procedural memory

A form of implicit memory involving automatic motor skills, cognitive skills, and habitual behaviors ('knowing how').

Maintenance rehearsal

A shallow form of encoding that involves repeating an item over and over without adding deeper meaning.

Elaborative rehearsal

A deep encoding method that involves organizing and processing information in meaningful ways to enhance long-term recall.

Levels of processing model

A memory framework stating that deeper, meaning-focused encoding produces stronger memory traces and superior recall compared to shallow surface processing.

Retrieval cues

External or internal stimuli that assist in triggering and recalling stored information from long-term memory.

Encoding specificity

The principle that the context and conditions present during learning determine which retrieval cues will be effective.

Context-dependent memory

The phenomenon where recall is enhanced if retrieval takes place in the same physical environment where encoding occurred.

State-dependent memory

The phenomenon where retrieval is improved when an individual's psychological, emotional, or physiological state during testing matches their state during encoding.

Testing effect

The finding that actively recalling information on a test leads to superior long-term memory retention compared to re-reading or re-studying.

Serial position effect

The memory phenomenon wherein items located at the beginning and end of a list are remembered significantly better than items in the middle.

Proactive interference

A memory retrieval failure where previously learned old information hinders the ability to access newly learned information.

Retroactive interference

A memory retrieval failure where newly acquired information impairs the recall of previously learned old information.

Blocking

A temporary inability to retrieve stored memory, commonly referred to as the 'tip-of-the-tongue' phenomenon.

Absentmindedness

Memory failure caused by shallow encoding or a lapse in attention during event occurrence.

Persistence

The unwanted, continuous recurrence of distressing memories, such as those occurring in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Bias

The alteration of past memories over time so that they align with current beliefs, attitudes, or knowledge.

Suggestibility

The alteration or creation of false memories in response to misleading post-event information, suggestive wording, or vivid narratives.

Elizabeth F. Loftus and John C. Palmer (1974)

Researchers who demonstrated suggestibility by showing that using verbs like 'smashed' instead of 'hit' led participants to estimate higher speeds and falsely remember seeing broken glass in automobile accident films.