Brain and Neuropsychology

What are the four lobes of the brain called?

Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital.

What are the two halves of the brain known as?

Hemispheres.

What is the function of the frontal lobe?

It is responsible for decision making, impulse control, and problem solving.

What is the function of the parietal lobe?

It plays an important role in perception - being able to understand the world around us (e.g. the ability to recognise faces). Also is responsible for processing our sense of touch.

What is the function of the temporal lobe?

Responsible for hearing and understanding sounds and speech and creating speech.

What is the function of the occipital lobe?

Responsible for our ability to see - it processes visual information from our eyes, so we can understand what we see.

For each lobe of the brain, state one problem that damage to this area might cause for an individual.

Frontal: inability to control impulses / make rational decisions. Parietal: problems with perception and understanding the world around us (e.g. inability to recognise faces). Temporal: problems understanding speech or producing speech. Occipital: problems with your sight.

What were the two aims of Damasio's study?

1. Identify the location of damage in Phineas Gage's brain. 2) See if the location of damage and Phineas Gage's reported changes were similar to other case studies of brain damaged individuals.

State two procedures Damasio carried out to determine the location of damage in Gage's brain.

Taking x-rays of the skull. Deforming a 3D reconstruction of a human skull so that it matched Phineas Gage's skull. Using a coordinate system to map out both skulls.

Which specific area of Gage's brain was determined by Damasio to be the location of damage?

The ventromedial region of both frontal lobes.

Regarding the 12 similar patients to Gage, what did Damasio find?

These 12 patients had similar impairments in function to Phineas Gage.

What did Damasio conclude was the function of this location of the brain?

The ventromedial region of the frontal lobes is responsible is for making rational decisions about personal and social matters and in the processing of emotions.

What is meant by the term 'objective' and why can Damasio's research be described as objective?

Factual, rather than opinion based. Because the use of x-rays and modern computer imaging technology is scientific and factual, not based on opinions.

What is the practical application of Damasio's research?

We can now make predictions about what changes to behaviour a person might experience if they have damage to the frontal lobes in the same area as Gage; for example, they may be more impulsive.

Which aspect of Damasio's research might be unreliable (not trustworthy)?

Information about the accident (reports on the changes in Gage's behaviour) was based on reports gathered 150 years ago - we don't know if these were accurate.

Why is it problematic to generalise the findings about Gage (from Damasio's research) to other brain damaged individuals?

The case is unique to Gage. It is unlikely someone else would have exactly the same damage.

What is meant by 'lateralisation of function'?

It is the idea that the two hemispheres of the brain have different, specialist functions that they perform.

What is meant by 'asymmetrical function'?

It refers to how the two hemispheres of the brain are different in terms of both structure and function, including how the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body, and how the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body.

What is the role of the corpus callosum?

It is the thick band of nerve fibres which connect the two hemipsheres of the brain and allow them to communicate with each other.

What are the roles of the left hemisphere?

Controlling the right side of the body. Processing language. It contains Broca's Area, which is responsible for speech production. It controls our ability to write and understand language.

What are the roles of the right hemisphere?

Controlling the left side of the body. Plays a large role in our spatial awarness and spatial skills. Responsible for us making sense of visual information.

Where is Broca's area located, and what problems might someone suffer after damage to the Broca's area?

The left hemisphere. They would likely have problems in producing speech.

Traditionally, which hemisphere is thought to have been dominant in males and females?

Males: right hemisphere. Females: left hemisphere.

Explain a piece of evidence that backs up the notion of sex differences in lateralisation.

Rilea et al. (2005) found males were better at some spatial tasks, especially those that use a lot of activity in the right hemisphere. Specifically, Rilea et al found men outperformed women on a 'water-level task' using spatial ability.

Explain a piece of evidence that refutes the notion of sex differences in lateralisation.

A problem with the Rilea et al. (2005) study, was that males did not always do better than females on the spatial tasks. For instance, Rilea et al found no difference in male and female performance on a 'paper folding task' using spatial ability.

What is a 'split-brain patient'?

Someone who has undergone surgey to sever their corpus callosum (usually as a treatment for epilepsy).

What were the two aims of Sperry's research?

To identify the functions of the left and right hemispheres. Also, to assess the effects of split-brain surgey on patients.

How many patients did Sperry study?

11

Describe a key result from one of Sperry's tasks.

When the word key was flashed into the split-brain patient's left visual field, they could not describe what they had seen, but could pick out a key from a range of objects with their left hand......OR.....when a naked picture was flashed in the left visual field, the patients would giggle and blush but couldn't describe why / what they had seen.

What did Sperry conclude was the primary function of (A) the left hemisphere, and (B) the right hemisphere?

A) The left hemisphere is the language centre, responsible for producing speech. B) The right hemisphere is responsible for spatial skills and processing emotions.

Outline one strength of Sperry's research.

The procedures were kept the same for each participant, so the data was collected in a reliable (consistent) way.

Why does Sperry's research lack ecological validity?

The tasks participants were asked to perform were unlike activities they would complete in everyday life - so it may not tell us about how the brain works in the real world.

Why is Sperry's small sample size a problem?

It makes it difficult to generalise the findings to a wider population - very few people have surgery to sever the corpus callosum so research may not be useful in explaining how 'normal' brains work.

What is a neuron?

A nerve cell, located in the brain and nervous system, which is responsible for sending messages to and from the brain and the rest of the body.

What are the 'branch-like' structures that attach to the cell body of a neuron called?

Dendrites.

Where are the cell body and nucleus located on a neuron?

At the top of the neuron (near the dendrites).

Where is the axon located on a neuron and what does it do?

In the middle of the neuron - the long thin section.

Where is are the axon terminals located on a neuron?

At the end of the neuron / axon - the opposite end to the dendrites.

Where are the vesicles located on a neuron and what do they contain?

Within the axon terminals. They contain neurotransmitters.

During synaptic transmission, when do the vesicles release the neurotransmitters into the synapse?

When the electrical impulse reaches the axon terminals, having travelled down the axon.

During synapitc transmission, what do the neurotransmitters bind to, on the post-synaptic neuron, which means the next neuron continues the message?

Receptors!

What does the neurotransmitter 'serotonin' do?

It is thought to be linked to depression - low levels of depression are thought to be a cuase or symptom of depression.

What does the neurotransmitter 'dopamine' do?

It is thought to be linked to addiction - some addictive drugs cause spikes in dopamine in the brain, which is responsible for the 'high' that drug users feel.

What two elements make up the central nervous system?

Brain and spinal cord.

What is a person with visual agnosia unable to recognise?

Everyday objects.

What types of things are people with visual agnosia able to recognise?

Faces.

What is a person with prosopagnosia unable to recognise?

Faces.

What types of things are people with prosopagnosia able to recognise?

Everyday objects.

Which area of the brain, near the back of the temporal lobe, is thought to be damaged in people with prosopagnosia?

The Fusiform Face area.

What is the function of the pre-frontal cortex area of the brain?

Controlling emotions, controlling impulses, making rational decisions.

What changes in behaviour are likely for somebody who suffers damage to their pre-frontal cortex?

Just like Phineas Gage...become more impulsive, unable to control their emotions or make rational decisions.

What did the 'old' method of studying the brain, 'post-mortems', involve?

Waiting until somebody had died and then cutting open and studying the brain.

How does the 'modern' method of an EEG work in order to study the brain?

In a living patient, electrodes are placed onto the scalp to pick up levels of activity in different areas of the brain. It shows which parts of the brain are active when tasks are performed.

How does the 'modern' method of an fMRI scan work in order to study the brain?

Involves studying the brain of someone whilst they complete a set task. fMRI scanners detect changes in blood oxygenation and blood flow as a result of activity in specific parts of the brain. When a brain area is more active, it consumes more oxygen, and more blood flow is directed towards this brain area. By detecting which regions of the brain are rich in oxygen, researchers can identify which areas of the brain are being used.

How does the 'modern' method of a PET scan work in order to study the brain?

A special dye that has radioactive tracers is injected into the body and your organs and tissues then absorb the tracer. When highlighted under a PET scanner, the tracers help your doctor to see how well your organs and tissues are working.

What is the advantage of modern methods of studying the brain over old methods - who can be studied?

They offer the opportunity to study the living brain and thus to help people living with brain damage. Also, these methods very powerful and have enabled investigations into very specific areas of the brain.

How have modern methods of studying the brain helped psychologists understand the causes of depression?

Being incredibly powerful and detailed, these modern methods have allowed scientisits to see that people with depression have low levels of the neurotransmitter 'serotonin' in their brains.

Why can modern methods of studying the brain be criticised for leading to reductionist explanations of human behaviour?

In focusing on increasingly small areas of the brain when explaining behaviour, we might fail to take into account other causes of behaviour, possibly caused by other areas of the brain / nervous system or even environmental factors.