Research Methods and Sampling Techniques

A collection of vocabulary flashcards covering key concepts in research methods, sampling techniques, causation, and qualitative analysis.

Sampling error

The difference between the observed value (sample estimate) and the true value (population parameter).

Standard error

A statistical measure that reflects the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of sample values.

Margin of error

The range within which the true population parameter is expected to fall, based on the sample estimate.

Probability sample

A sampling method where each element has a known probability of being included in the sample.

Non-probability sample

A sampling method where elements are selected based on subjective judgment rather than random selection.

Simple random sample

A sample obtained by randomly selecting individuals from the population.

Stratified sample

A sampling method where the population is divided into subgroups and random samples are taken from each.

Cluster sample

A sampling method where entire groups (clusters) are randomly selected, often used when a complete list of the population is not available.

Purposive sample

A non-random sample selected intentionally to address a specific question or objective.

Convenience sample

A sampling method that selects individuals based on their easy availability.

Causal inference

The process of determining whether a relationship between two variables can be interpreted as a cause-and-effect relationship.

Covariation

Demonstrates that the supposed cause (X) covaries with the supposed effect (Y).

Internal validity

The extent to which a study can demonstrate a true cause-and-effect relationship.

External validity

The extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other contexts or populations.

Experimental research

A research method that involves manipulating one variable to determine its effect on another variable.

Control group

A group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment and is used as a benchmark.

Quasi-experimental design

A research design that does not use random assignment but utilizes pre-existing groups.

Case study

An in-depth analysis of a single case (N=1) or a small number of cases.

Method of difference

A comparative approach that identifies a factor that differs between similar cases with different outcomes.

Most likely case

A case selected where an outcome is predicted to occur based on theory.

Necessary cause

A condition that must be present for an effect to occur.

Sufficient cause

A condition that, if present, guarantees the effect will occur.

Process tracing

A method in qualitative analysis that seeks to trace the causal mechanisms from cause to outcome.

Document analysis

The examination of audio, visual, or written materials as data sources in research.

Reactivity

The potential for subjects to alter their behavior because they are aware they are being studied.

Hoop test

 identifies a necessary condition (in the area of the crime)

Smoking gun test

identifies a sufficient condition (gun residue on hands)

Doubly decisive test

both necessary and sufficient (CCTV footage of the person)

Straw-in-the-wind test

Circumstantial (motive)

Process tracing

 causal mechanism traced from causal condition to outcome. whether the absence of the cause results in the absence of the outcome, all other things being equal