Endocrine and Respiratory Systems Flashcards

Flashcards covering key terms and concepts from the provided lecture notes on the Endocrine, Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, and Reproductive Systems.

Hormones

Chemical messengers that affect the activity of other cells.

Ductless glands

Glands that secrete products directly into the bloodstream, lacking ducts.

Negative feedback system

A system where a change in a hormone level triggers a response that reverses the initial change, maintaining homeostasis.

Releasing factors

The hypothalamus secretes these into the pituitary gland to stimulate hormone secretion.

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)

Located on the inferior portion of the brain/hypothalamus and surrounded by the Circle of Willis.

Adenohypophysis

The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, responsible for producing and secreting six hormones.

Neurohypophysis

The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, which stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus.

Growth Hormone (GH)

Increases mitosis and protein synthesis and regulates cell growth.

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Regulates thyroid activity.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

Controls hormone secretion by the adrenal cortex.

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Stimulates follicle development (egg/ovary and sperm/testes) and the secretion of estrogen and testosterone.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Plays a role in ovulation and also stimulates estrogen and testosterone secretion.

Prolactin

Stimulates the production of milk in the mammary glands (lactation).

Oxytocin

Stimulates uterine contractions and promotes milk ejection.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Affects kidney tubule permeability to reduce water excretion; also called vasopressin, controls blood pressure and constricts blood vessels.

Thyroid Gland

Located in the anterior portion of the neck, inferior to the larynx and covers the anterior and lateral aspect of the trachea; two lobes connected by isthmus.

Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)

Act on most cells of the body and affect Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR).

Calcitonin

Acts on bone to decrease osteoclast activity, lowering blood calcium levels.

Parathyroid Gland

Four oval structures found on the posterior side of the thyroid, secreting parathyroid hormone.

Parathyroid Hormone

Increases osteoclast activity in bone, kidney absorption of calcium, and dietary calcium absorption to increase blood calcium levels.

Adrenal Glands

Glands on the superior portion of the kidneys; consists of medulla and cortex.

Adrenal Medulla

Inner portion of the adrenal gland, activated by stress, secretes epinephrine to reinforce and prolong the sympathetic response.

Adrenal Cortex

Outer portion of the adrenal gland, produces cortico-hormones like aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens in response to ACTH stimulation.

Aldosterone

Acts at the kidney tubules to regulate sodium (Na) and potassium (K) levels.

Cortisol/Hydrocortisone

Acts on many tissues to regulate glucose metabolism and prevent/reduce inflammation.

Androgens

Sex hormones that supplement gonadal hormones and promote the development of secondary sex characteristics.

Pancreas

Found in the upper abdomen, posterior and inferior to the stomach; an endocrine and exocrine gland.

Insulin

Produced by beta cells and acts on body cells to regulate glucose transport into cells.

Glucagon

Produced by alpha cells and acts on the liver to convert glycogen into glucose for body use.

Pineal Gland

Near the roof of the third ventricle; secretes melatonin, influencing circadian rhythm and delaying sexual maturation.

Ovary (Gonad)

Secretes estrogen and progesterone to act on female reproductive organs, aiding gamete development and secondary sex characteristics.

Testes

Secretes testosterone onto male reproductive organs to develop sperm and secondary sex characteristics.

Paranasal Sinuses

Air spaces in the frontal, ethmoid, maxillary, and sphenoid bones (FEMS).

Nasopharynx

Uppermost part of the pharynx, posterior to the nasal cavity, containing the Eustachian tube and pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids).

Oropharynx

Middle portion of the pharynx, posterior to the oral cavity, containing lingual and palatine tonsils.

Laryngopharynx

Inferior-most portion of the pharynx, from the hyoid bone to the larynx, directing food to the esophagus and air to the larynx and trachea.

Larynx

Connects the laryngopharynx with the trachea, a triangle-shaped box made of cartilaginous plates.

Trachea

Anterior to the esophagus, connecting the larynx to the bronchi; has C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage.

Primary Bronchi

Contains a right and left primary bronchi; these supply each of the lungs.

Secondary Bronchi

Supply the lobes of the lungs; the left lung has two, and the right lung has three.

Tertiary Bronchi

Supply the bronchopulmonary segments of the lungs; smooth muscle increases, and cartilage decreases here.

Terminal Bronchioles

Only made up of smooth muscle and epithelium; transition into the alveoli.

Alveoli

Grape-like sacs that are the location of gas exchange in the lungs; made of simple squamous epithelium.

Surfactant

Secreted by Type II cells in the alveoli; lowers surface tension and ensures the alveoli recoil to their original size.

Medial (Lung Surface)

Location of the hilum where vessels and bronchi pass in and out of the lung tissue.

Costal (Lung Surface)

Anterior portion of the lung that contacts the rib cage.

Apex (Lung Surface)

The superior portion of the lung, extending two finger widths above the clavicle.

Base (Lung Surface)

Inferior portion of the lung; concave and sits on top of the diaphragm.

Pleura of the Lungs

Double-walled sac inferior to the lungs; protects the lungs and contains pleural fluid for lubrication.

Visceral Pleura

Contact in direct with the surface of the lung; make up the layers of the pleura.

Parietal Pleura

Part of the layers of the pleura that lines the walls of the thoracic cavity

Pleural Cavity

The space between the two pleura where the pleural fluid is located.

Midclavicular (Line)

Vertical line from the middle of the clavicle, anterior body used as an anatomical landmark to used with lungs or pleura.

Midaxillary (Line)

Vertical line from the middle of the axilla (armpit), lateral body used as an anatomical landmark to used with lungs or pleura.

Midscapular (Line)

Vertical line from the middle of the scapula, posterior body and used as an anatomical landmark to used with lungs or pleura.

Diaphragm

Dome-shaped sheet of SKELETAL muscle separating the thoracic and abdominal cavities; supplied by the phrenic nerve.

Intercostal Muscles

Muscles between the ribs; made up internal and external intercostal muscles.

External Intercostals

Aid in inspiration (moving air into the lungs); diaphragm moves down/flattens.

Internal Intercostals

Aid in expiration (moving air out of the lungs); diaphragm moves up/curves.

Carotid Body (Peripheral Chemoreceptors)

They respond to changes in pH due to levels of CO2 and are found near division of carotid artery.

Aortic Body (Peripheral Chemoreceptors)

They respond to changes in pH due to levels of CO2 and are found near aortic arch.

Hard Palate

Made up of maxilla (anterior) and palatine bone (posterior); covered with a mucous membrane.

Soft Palate

Skeletal muscle arch posterior of the hard palate; covered with a mucous membrane

Uvula

Projection of the soft palate that lifts to cover the nasopharynx when swallowing

Frenulum

Tissue under the tongue to restrict movement

Papillae

Small, raised areas on the dorsal surface of the tongue; they are taste buds and sensitive to touch

Lingual Tonsils

Lymphoid tissue on the posterior part of the tongue.

Enamel

Mostly of CaPO4 and covers the teeth

Dentin

Underneath enamel and is bone-like material making up the teeth

Pulp

Made up of nerves and blood vessels and is part of the teeth

Parotid Glands

Anterior and inferior to the ear and drains into the oral cavity near the 2nd upper molar.

Submandibular Glands

Located near the mandible and drains into the bottom of the mouth

Sublingual Glands

Floor of mouth under mucosa and under tongue

Lysozymes

Enzymes that destroy the bacteria and clean teeth

Amylase

Enzymes that begin the digestion of STARCH in the mouth

Lamina Propria

A Basement membrane underneath the mucosa

Submucosa

Covers the mucosa (moving out externally), well vascularized, and made up of elastic and collagen fibers to allow the GI tract to expand

Serosa

Outermost layer covering the muscularis, made up of fibrous connective tissue

Celiac, Superior Mesenteric, and Inferior Mesenteric Plexus

Found near the arteries with the same name and synapses with sympathetic neurons of the GI tract

Celiac Trunk

Supplies the esophagus, stomach, spleen, liver, and gallbladder

Superior Mesenteric Artery

Supplies the small intestine, pancreas, cecum, ascending colon, and part of the transverse colon

Inferior Mesenteric Artery

Supplies the transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, and the rectum

Mucosa of Esophagus

Made of stratified squamous epithelium so you need many layers of cells to keep the esophagus protected

Gastro-esophageal Sphincter

Located between the layers of the esophagus and is used to prevent stomach contents from entering the esophagus

Peritoneum

A serous membrane that lines the abdominopelvic cavity to cover and support the organs

Parietal Peritoneum

Lines the body cavity of the peritoneum

Visceral Peritoneum

Covers outer surfaces of organs and is part of the peritoneum

Lesser Omentum

Double folds of the peritoneum that attaches lesser curve of the stomach to the liver

Greater Omentum

Double folds of the peritoneum that are attached to the inferior curve of the stomach

Falciform Ligament

Double folds of the peritoneum that attaches the liver to the inferior diaphragm and anterior body wall

Mesentery

Double folds of the peritoneum that attaches the small intestine to posterior abdominal wall

Mesocolon

Double folds of the peritoneum that attaches the large intestine to the posterior abdominal wall

Stomach Purpose

Mechanical mixing of food to produce “chyme,” starts protein digestion, stores chyme until sent to duodenum

Rugae

Deep folds in the mucosa of the stomach that allow the stomach to expand (increase surface area) to aid secretion and digestion when eating

Chief Cells

Found in the mucosa of stomach that produces pepsinogen (later gets converted to pepsin for digesting proteins)

Parietal Cells

Found in the mucosa of stomach that produces HCl and intrinsic factor (absorbs Vitamin B12)

Mucous Cells

Found in the mucosa of stomach that produces mucous

Enteroendocrine Cells

Found in the mucosa of stomach that produces gastrin (hormones) to increase GI activity

Small Intestine

Connects from the pyloric sphincter to the large intestine, central and lower abdominal cavity

Small Intestine Major Functions

Chemical digestion, mechanical mixing, absorption