AP Psychology 2024-25

person perception

how we form impressions of ourselves & others including attributions of behavior

attribution theory

how we explain someones behavior by crediting either the situation (situational attribution) or the person’s stable, enduring traits ( dispositional attribution)

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another person's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal dispositions.

actor observer bias

the tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute others behavior to internal causes

prejudice

a negative attitude or belief toward a group and its members, often based on stereotypes or misinformation. generally involves negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs and a predisposition to discriminating action

stereotypes

generalized belief about a group of people

discrimination:

unjustifiable negative behavior towards a group or its members

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore deserve what they get and get what they deserve

social identity

the “we” aspect of our self concept; the part of our answer to who am i? questions that come w/ our group memberships

ingroup

“us” people with whom we share a common identity

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group

outgroup

“them” those percieved as different or apart from our ingroup

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

other-race effect

the tendency to recognize faces of our own race more accurately than those of other races.

self-serving bias

attribute good things to their own traits and bad things to a situation

attitudes

feelings often influenced by our beliefs that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people and events

foot in door phenomenon

tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later w/ a larger request

role

a set of expectations about a social position, defning how those in the position ought to behave

cognitive dissonance theory

Festinger the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when 2 of our cognitions are inconsistent, leading to changes in beliefs or behaviors.

persuasion

changing peoples attitudes potentially influencing their actions

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues like attractiveness

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence & arguments in a persuasive message, leading to lasting attitude change.

personality

an individual’s characteristics pattern of thinking feeling and acting

norms

a society’s understood rules for accepted and expected behavior , prescribe “proper” behavior in individual & social situations

conformity

Asch, adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide w/ a group strandard

normative social influence

influence resulting from a persons desire to gain approval or avoid dissaproval

informational social influence

influence resulting from a persons willingness to accept other’s opinions about reality

obedience

Milgram complying with an order or demand

social facilitation

in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well learned tasks and worsened performance on difficult tasks

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward a common goal, often leading to decreased individual accountability.

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in a group situations that foster around arousal and anonymity

group polarization

the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussions within the group

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. It often leads to poor decisions.

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one group to the next

tight culture

a place w/ clearly defined & reliably imposed norms

loose cultures

a place w/ flexibile & informal norms

agression

any physical or verbal intended to harm someone emotionally or phsycially

frustration-anger principle

the principle that frustration - the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - creates anger which can generate agression

social script

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

mere exposure effect

the tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beggining of a relationship

companionate love

the deep affectionate attatchment we feel for those whose lives are intertwined with ours

equity

a conditions in which people receive from a relationship what they give into it

self disclosure

the act of revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if there are other bystander present

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process the aim of which is to maximize benefits & minimize costs

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people wil help, not hurt those who have helped them

social responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help

conflict

a percieved incompatability of actions, goals or ideas

social trap

a situation in which two parties, each by pursuing their self interest rather than that of the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

mirror image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting parties as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil

self fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people & require their cooperation

GRIT

graduated & reciprocated initiatives in tension-reduction, strategy to decrease international tensions

psychodynamic theories

theories that view personality w/ a focus on the unconcious mind & the importance of childhood experiences

psychoanalysis

Freuds theory of personality that attributes thoughts & actions to unconcious motives & conflicts, techniques are used in treating psychodisorders by seeking to expose & interpret unconcious tensions

unconcious

a resevoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, memories, information processing

free association

a method of exploring the unconcious in which a person relaxes & says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarassing

id

a resevoir of unconcious psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic sexual & aggressive desires

ego

the pretty concious “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud mediates among the demands of the id, superego & reality

superego

the partly concious part of personality that according to Freud represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement & for future aspirations

defense mechanisms

the ego’s protective methods of reducing axiety by unconciously distorting reality

repression

in psychonanalytic theory the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings and memories

terror management theory

a theory of death related anxiety; explores people’s emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death

thematic apperception test

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambigous scenes

projective test

a personalty test such as the TAT or the rorasch that provides amibigous images designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics and explore the preconcious and unconcious mind

rorasch ink blot test

a projective test designed by Hermann rorsasch; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing how they interpret 10 inkblots

humanistic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

hierarchy of needs

maslow’s levels of human needs, beginning at the base with physiologial needs. often visualized as a pyramid, w/ needs nearer the base taking priority until they are satisfied

self-actualization

accordinf to maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met & self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential

self-transendence

according to maslow, the striving for identity, meaning and purpouse beyond the self

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting nonjudgemental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help people develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

self concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question: who am i?

trait

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assesed by self report inventories and peer reports

personality inventory

a questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to asses selected personality traits

Minnesota Multiphasic Personalit Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. originally developed to identify emotional disorders, this test is now used for many other screening purpouses

emirically derived test

a test (like MMPI) created by selecting from a pool of items those that discriminate between groups

big 5 factors

five traits - opennes, conscientousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism that describe personality

social-cognitive perspective

a view of behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits and their social context

behavioral approach

focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and enviornment

self-esteem

our feelings of high or low self worth

self-efficacy

our sense of competence and effectiveness

narcissm

excessive self-love and self-absorption

individualism

a cultural pattern that emphasizes people’s own goals over group goals and defines identity mainly in terms of unique personal attributes

collectivism

a cultural pattern that prioritizes the goals of important groups - extended family often

collective unconcious

Carl Jung’s concept of a shared inherited resevoir of memory from our species history

facial feedback effect

New cards

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions

the broaden-and-build theory (of emotion)