final exam BIO105

how is breathing controlled? by you? by your brain? both?

primarily it’s controlled by your brain, specifically the medulla oblongata automatically controls breathing but you can voluntarily control it temporarily.

when you breathe in, follow the path of air?

nasal cavity, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

what is the process that gases are exchanged in the lungs? (between alveoli and capillaries?)

the process is called gas exchange or diffusion, where oxygen enters the bloodstream from the alveoli and carbon dioxide is removed from the blood.

arteries and veins: which carry blood to the heart/away

arteries carry blood away from the heart and veins carry blood towards

why do some athletes desire to be increase their red blood cells by taking erythropoetin?

because it enhances oxygen delivery to muscles, which can improve endurance and performance

what would happen if your platelets are prevented to form clots?

you would experience excessive bleeding, as the body would be unable to stop blood loss from injuries or wounds due to the lack of clot formation.

what are some features found in arteries? what is their major function?

have thick, elastic walls to handle high pressure and they primarily function to transport oxygen-rich blood away from the heart.

what happens in the capillaries? (what sort of substances are exchanged)?

nutrients, gases (such as oxygen and carbon dioxide), and waste products are exchanged between blood and surrounding tissues through their thin walls.

why can blood clots develop during long plane flights?

prolonged sitting can lead to reduced blood circulation and increased stagnation, which promotes the formation of blood clots in the veins.

where are blood cells formed?

in the red bone marrow, with some types also produced in the lymphatic system.

what is PV=N

when pressure decreases the volume increases and vice versa

what happens when the diaphragm contracts? when it relaxes?

why is the liver considered an accessory organ to the digestive system?

It produces bile, which aids in the digestion of fats, and is essential for the metabolism of nutrients but is not part of the digestive tract.

what does the gallbladder help to digest?

The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, which is released into the small intestine to aid in the digestion of fats.

what is the difference between chemical and mechanical digestion? where do each happen?

Chemical digestion involves enzymatic breakdown of food, primarily occurring in the stomach and small intestine, while mechanical digestion includes physical processes such as chewing and churning, occurring in the mouth and stomach.

what does the epiglottis cover

the trachea during swallowing to prevent food from entering the airway.

what is the pH of the stomach

The pH of the stomach is typically between 1.5 and 3.5, making it highly acidic. This acidity helps in digestion and protects against pathogens.

what accessory organ neutralizes the acidic chyme coming from the stomach?

The pancreas

what is peristalsis

The involuntary contraction and relaxation of the muscles in the gastrointestinal tract that moves food along the digestive system.

another name for the colon

is the large intestine.

where in the body are the kidneys located

The kidneys are located in the lower back, protected by the ribcage, and situated on either side of the spine.

what are the parts of the nephron?

The nephron consists of several parts including the glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, the distal convoluted tubule, and the collecting duct. These components work together to filter blood and produce urine.

what sort of substances are found in a healthy persons urine?

contains water, urea, creatinine, electrolytes, and various metabolites

what sort of substances are found in an unhealthy persons urine

may include higher levels of glucose, protein, blood, or ketones, indicating possible health issues such as diabetes, kidney disease, or infections.

what are some of the homeostatic functions of the urinary system?

regulating fluid and electrolyte balance, acid-base balance, blood pressure, and the elimination of waste products. It also plays a role in red blood cell production and calcium metabolism.

outcomes of a positive feedback loop vs negative feedback loop

Positive feedback loops amplify responses and processes, leading to a greater change in the same direction, while negative feedback loops reduce or counteract changes, promoting stability and homeostasis in physiological systems.

what does antidiuretic hormone do (ADH) do?

regulates water balance in the body by promoting water reabsorption in the kidneys, reducing urine output and concentrating urine.

what does parathyroid hormone do?

Regulates calcium levels in the blood by increasing calcium reabsorption in the kidneys, stimulating calcium release from bones, and enhancing intestinal absorption of calcium.

which gland needs iodine

thyroid

what do each of the hormones insulin and glucagon do

Insulin lowers blood sugar levels by facilitating cellular uptake of glucose, while glucagon raises blood sugar levels by promoting glycogen breakdown in the liver.

what hormone is produced in the thymus gland? what is it’s function?

The thymus gland produces thymosin, which is crucial for the development and maturation of T-cells, a type of white blood cell involved in immune response.

type 1 vs type 2 diabetes, whats different with regard to insulin production?

Type 1 diabetes is characterized by the autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, leading to little or no insulin production. In contrast, type 2 diabetes typically involves insulin resistance and may have normal or elevated insulin levels initially.

what happens when the frontal lobe of the brain is damaged (remember phineas gage)

damage to the frontal lobe can result in changes in personality, impairments in judgment and impulse control, and difficulties in planning and organizing behavior, as illustrated by the case of Phineas Gage.

what ions are stored in the sarcoplasmic reitculum? why?

The sarcoplasmic reticulum primarily stores calcium ions, which are essential for muscle contraction. When a muscle cell is stimulated, calcium ions are released into the cytoplasm to trigger the contraction process.

sympathetic vs parasympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are two divisions of the autonomic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses, while the parasympathetic nervous system promotes 'rest and digest' activities.

what part of your brain allows you to tune out distractions and focus on something?

The part of the brain that allows you to tune out distractions and focus is the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in attention, decision-making, and impulse control.

what part of your brain controls breathing and heart rate?

The part of the brain that controls breathing and heart rate is the medulla oblongata, located in the brainstem. It regulates autonomic functions such as respiration and cardiovascular responses.

what part of the brain helpd with balance

The part of the brain that helps with balance is the cerebellum, which coordinates voluntary movements and maintains posture and balance.

what part of the brain is involved in vision

The part of the brain involved in vision is the occipital lobe, which processes visual information received from the eyes.

what are the parts of a motor neuron

A motor neuron consists of three main parts: the cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The cell body contains the nucleus, while dendrites receive signals from other neurons and the axon transmits impulses away from the cell body to muscle fibers.

where in the body can you find a synovial joint

Synovial joints can be found in various locations in the body, including the shoulders, knees, elbows, and hips. These joints allow for a wide range of motion due to their unique structure.

where in the body can you find a hinged joint

Hinged joints are primarily found in the elbows and knees, allowing for flexion and extension movements.

tendons vs ligaments, what do each do?

Tendons connect muscles to bones, facilitating movement, while ligaments connect bones to other bones, providing stability to joints.

when a muscle contracts what do actin and myosin do?

During muscle contraction, actin filaments slide over myosin filaments, shortening the sarcomere and leading to muscle shortening and force generation.

osteoblasts and osteoclasts, what do each do?

Osteoblasts are bone-forming cells that synthesize and Secrete the bone matrix, while osteoclasts are responsible for bone resorption, breaking down bone tissue.

define atomic number

The atomic number is defined as the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom, which determines the chemical properties and identity of an element.

what particles are in an atoms nucleus

The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons, which are collectively referred to as nucleons. Protons determine the atomic number, while neutrons contribute to the atomic mass.

what does medicine use radioactive isotopes for

Medicine uses radioactive isotopes for diagnostic imaging, cancer treatment, and tracer studies to monitor biological processes.

what is an isotope

An isotope is a variant of an element that has the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons in its nucleus, resulting in a different atomic mass.

what are hydrogen bonds

Weak attractions between molecules due to hydrogen atoms bonded to electronegative atoms. They play a crucial role in the structure and properties of water and biological molecules like proteins and nucleic acids.

what is the difference between saturated fat and unsaturated fat

The difference between saturated and unsaturated fats lies in their chemical structure; saturated fats contain no double bonds between carbon atoms, making them solid at room temperature, while unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds, typically resulting in a liquid form.

what is a phospholipid

A phospholipid is a molecule that consists of two fatty acid tails and a phosphate group, which creates a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails. This structure is fundamental to the formation of cell membranes, allowing for selective permeability.

what kind of fat is cholesterol

Cholesterol is a type of lipid known as a sterol, characterized by a multi-ring structure. It is considered a saturated fat because it can be associated with the saturated fatty acids found in meat and dairy products.

differences between DNA and RNA - what are they?

DNA is double-stranded and stores genetic information, while RNA is single-stranded and plays roles in protein synthesis and gene expression.

which nucleotides pair in dna vs in rna

in DNA, adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine. In RNA, adenine pairs with uracil instead of thymine, while cytosine still pairs with guanine.

what are the monomers of carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids?

The monomers of carbohydrates are monosaccharides, for proteins they are amino acids, and for nucleic acids, they are nucleotides.

what is the empirical formula for carbohydrates

c6h12o6

what structures are found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and genetic material (DNA).

what is the function of the mitochondira, ribosomes, lysosomes in eukaryotic cells?

The mitochondria produce energy in the form of ATP through cellular respiration, ribosomes synthesize proteins, and lysosomes digest macromolecules and recycle cellular components.

what is the end product in negative feedback loops? positive feedback loops?

The end product in negative feedback loops stabilizes a system by reducing the output, while in positive feedback loops, the end product enhances or amplifies changes, moving the system away from its starting state.

reflex arc

A reflex arc is a neural pathway that controls a reflex action, consisting of a sensory neuron, an interneuron, and a motor neuron, allowing quick responses to stimuli.

what are the parts of the atom? which are positive vs negative?

The parts of an atom include protons, which are positively charged, neutrons with no charge, and electrons, which are negatively charged. Protons and neutrons form the nucleus, while electrons orbit around it.

how is an ionic bond formed? how is a covalent bond formed?

An ionic bond is formed through the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, resulting in oppositely charged ions that attract each other. In contrast, a covalent bond forms when two atoms share electrons to achieve stability in their outer electron shells.

how does water form hydrogen bonds

Water forms hydrogen bonds due to the polarity of its molecules, where the partially positive hydrogen atoms of one water molecule attract the partially negative oxygen atoms of neighboring water molecules.

two properties of water that are associated with hydrogen bonding?

Two properties of water associated with hydrogen bonding are high surface tension, which allows it to form drops, and high specific heat capacity, which enables it to absorb a lot of heat without a significant change in temperature.

what is a phospholipid? where in a cell can they be found?

a phospholipid is a type of lipid molecule that consists of two fatty acid tails and a phosphate group, forming a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails. This structure makes phospholipids essential for forming cell membranes, creating a barrier that separates the interior of cells from the outside environment.

what are associated with the 4 levels of protein structures

The four levels of protein structures are primary (amino acid sequence), secondary (alpha helices and beta sheets), tertiary (3D shape), and quaternary (arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains).

where in the eukaryotic cell does glycolysis occur? is oxygen required?

Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells and does not require oxygen, making it an anaerobic process.

where does the citric acid cycle occur in the eukaryotic cell

in the mitochondrial matrix.

what is the primary job of NADH and FADH2

to carry electrons to the electron transport chain for ATP production.

what is the final electron acceptor in the eukaryotic cell

oxygen, which forms water by combining with electrons and protons.

what is the difference between diffusion and osmosis

Diffusion is the movement of solute particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration, while osmosis specifically refers to the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

what are the DNA monomers and how do they pair up in DNA molecules and RNA molecules

The DNA monomers are nucleotides, which consist of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine, while in RNA, adenine pairs with uracil instead of thymine.

what is the most ancient part of the brain and what are the functions controlled there?

The most ancient part of the brain is the brainstem, which controls vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure.

where in the brain is hearing contolled

Hearing is primarily controlled in the auditory cortex, located in the temporal lobe of the brain. This area processes sound information and is involved in recognition and interpretation.

what organs make up the central nervous system

The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for processing information and coordinating activity throughout the body.

what structures make up the peripheral nervous system

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all the nerves outside the central nervous system, including cranial and spinal nerves, which connect various parts of the body to the brain and spinal cord.

in what direction does an action potential move along a motor neuron

An action potential moves along a motor neuron in a direction from the cell body toward the axon terminals, facilitating the transmission of nerve signals to muscle fibers.

does myelin help to move the action potential along the neuron more rapidly? how?

Yes, myelin increases the speed of action potential propagation by insulating the axon and allowing electrical impulses to jump between nodes of Ranvier.

what is the myelin sheath made of? (what kind of cells)

The myelin sheath is made of oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system, both of which are types of glial cells.

name all the valves in the heart and their location

The heart contains four main valves: the tricuspid valve (between the right atrium and right ventricle), the pulmonary valve (at the exit of the right ventricle leading to the pulmonary artery), the mitral valve (between the left atrium and left ventricle), and the aortic valve (at the exit of the left ventricle leading to the aorta).

which chamber of the heart is more muscular

the left ventricle

what are the organs of the digestive system

The organs of the digestive system include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, pancreas, and gallbladder, which work together to process food and absorb nutrients.

accesory organs of the digestive system

include the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder, which assist in digestion but are not part of the digestive tract.

where does carbohydrate digestion begin?

carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth where salivary amylase starts breaking down starches into simpler sugars.

where does protein digestion begin

? Protein digestion begins in the stomach where gastric juices denature proteins and pepsin starts breaking them down into smaller peptides.

in digestion what two accessory organs help to break down nutrients to the monomers further

the liver and pancreas.

which accessory organ emulsifies fats

The gallbladder is the accessory organ that stores and releases bile, which emulsifies fats for digestion.

what structures in the small intestine allow for the most absorption of nutrients to occur there?

The villi and microvilli in the small intestine increase the surface area for the absorption of nutrients.

in respiration simple diffusion occurs in the lungsm what is the name of the structure where this happens?

The alveoli are the structures in the lungs where simple diffusion occurs, allowing gas exchange between the air and blood.

what gas diffuses from the lungs to the capillaries and into the blood stream

Oxygen is the gas that diffuses from the lungs to the capillaries and into the bloodstream.

what gas diffuses from the capillaries to the lungs? which is considered a waste product?

Carbon dioxide is the gas that diffuses from the capillaries to the lungs, considered a waste product of metabolism.

what are the formed elements in the blood

The formed elements in the blood include red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, all of which play vital roles in transportation, immune response, and clotting.

What is the name given to the condition where growth hormone is secreted in excess in adults

Acromegaly is the condition where growth hormone is secreted in excess in adults, leading to abnormal growth of bones and tissues.

What are some of the physical appearances associated with acromegaly?

Physical appearances associated with acromegaly include enlarged hands and feet, facial changes such as a protruding jaw and enlarged nose, and thickened skin.

what are some causes for pituitary dwarfism

Causes of pituitary dwarfism include deficiencies in growth hormone production due to genetic mutations, tumors, injury to the pituitary gland, or damage to the hypothalamus that affects hormone regulation.

What happens when too much growth hormone is released when a child has not yet fully grown?

Excessive growth hormone release in children can lead to gigantism, characterized by abnormally high growth rates and increased height.

what are some of the hormones secreted by the pituitary gland

Hormones secreted by the pituitary gland include growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). These hormones regulate various bodily functions such as growth, metabolism, and reproductive processes.

which other organ system works with the respiratory system to assist with internal respiration

The circulatory system works with the respiratory system to facilitate internal respiration by transporting oxygen to tissues and removing carbon dioxide.