Psyc C1000: Exam #2

Apgar scale

A quick assessment of a baby’s health using five scales: appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, and respiration.

Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model

The idea that our development is shaped by multiple interacting systems, such as our immediate environment and our larger culture.

Developmental psychology

A subfield focused on the study of how humans change and grow over our life span.

Emerging adulthood

The transition from adolescence to young adulthood, when we experiment with identity, relationships, and careers.

Erikson’s theory of identity development

The idea that we move through eight decisions or “crises” that form our self-concept and views of the world.

Feral children

Children who grew up without interaction or care from other people, usually through extreme neglect.

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

The idea that children move through three increasingly advanced stages of moral and ethical thinking.

Kübler-Ross stages of dying theory

The idea that when we know we’re close to death, we move through five stages: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.

Piaget’s cognitive-developmental theory

The idea that our mental abilities improve steadily and grow in complexity through infancy to adolescence.

Primary sex characteristics

Our reproductive organs and genitals.

Senescence

A gradual decline in physical health through old age.

Singlism

The prejudiced belief that single adults are less happy and mature than adults in intimate relationships.

Sternberg’s triangular theory of love

The idea that relationships can vary on three factors: intimacy, passion, and commitment.

Subjective age

How old we feel, psychologically (compared to our chronological age).

Terror management theory

The idea that when we’re reminded of our own mortality, we comfort ourselves by clinging to worldviews or relationships.

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory

The idea that different cultures and societies train children to solve problems in different ways.

Acquisition

In classical conditioning, it’s when the association between two stimuli is first happening or is being strengthened with repeated pairings.

Biological preparedness

Our body’s natural tendency to make some associations faster than others, especially when they are related to our biological needs.

Classical conditioning

When a natural, physiological response to one stimulus is transferred to another because the two stimuli are associated with each other.

Cognitive learning

Change in knowledge or understanding on a mental level.

Cognitive map

A mental representation of the layout of a given geographical region or area.

Conditioned response

The reaction caused by a conditioned stimulus, which occurs only after learning has happened.

Conditioned stimulus

An object, sound, smell, and so on in the environment that cause an unnatural reaction only after learning has happened.

Continuous schedule

When a reinforcement or punishment occurs every time a behavior occurs.

Discrimination (classical conditioning)

Responding only to a specific conditioned stimulus and not to other similar stimuli.

Extinction

In classical conditioning, it’s when a conditioned response no longer occurs.

Fixed interval schedule

When reinforcement or punishment consistently occurs after a set period of time.

Fixed ratio schedule

When reinforcement or punishment consistently occurs after a set number of behaviors.

Generalization

In classical conditioning, it’s when a conditioned response occurs because of a new stimulus that is similar to a previously learned conditioned stimulus.

Insight

Working out a solution to a problem simply by thinking it through.

Interval schedules

When reinforcement or punishment occurs based on how much time has passed (regardless of how many times the behavior was enacted).

Latent learning

Knowledge gained that can only be observed indirectly or later.

Law of effect

Thorndike’s theory that in general, behaviors followed by rewards will be strengthened while behaviors followed by punishments will be weakened.

Learning

A relatively long-term change in behavior or physiological response, due to previous experiences.

Modeling

Imitating the behaviors of others, especially when we see them getting rewards.

Negative punishment

When a pleasant stimulus is removed from the environment, making behavior less likely in the future.

Negative reinforcement

When an unpleasant stimulus is removed from the environment, rewarding behavior and making it more likely in the future.

Neutral stimulus

An object, sound, smell, and so on in the environment that don’t cause any particular reaction.

Observational learning

When we change our behavior because we assume we’ll experience the same consequences we’ve seen others experience for their behaviors.

Operant conditioning

Learning to associate rewards or punishments with certain behaviors, based on what has followed that behavior in the past.

Operant conditioning chamber

A mechanical box in which animals can be trained using reinforcements and punishments.

Partial schedule

Any schedule of consequence that is not continuous, meaning the consequence does not occur every time the behavior occurs.

Positive punishment

When an unpleasant stimulus is added to the environment, making behavior less likely in the future.

Positive reinforcement

When a pleasant stimulus is added to the environment, rewarding behavior and making it more likely in the future.

Punishment

Unpleasant consequences for behavior that make the behavior less likely to occur in the future.

Ratio schedules

When reinforcement or punishment occurs based on how often a behavior has been performed (regardless of how long that takes).

Reinforcement

Rewards for behavior that make the behavior more likely to occur in the future.

Schedules of consequence

How often or consistently a reinforcement or punishment occurs after behavior is displayed.

Shaping

Learning through reinforcement over several, progressive stages.

Spontaneous recovery

In classical conditioning, it’s when a conditioned response returns after a period of extinction.

Taste aversion

The tendency to avoid certain foods after they have been paired with feeling sick, even after a single occurrence.

Unconditioned response

The automatic, instinctive reaction caused by an unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned stimulus

An object, sound, smell, and so on in the environment that trigger an automatic, instinctive reaction.

Variable interval schedule

When reinforcement or punishment is based on time, but the exact amount of time can change.

Variable ratio schedule

When reinforcement or punishment is based on a number of behaviors, but the exact amount of behaviors can change.

Amnesia

The inability to retrieve large amounts of information, often due to experiencing trauma.

Blocking

When memory is temporarily inaccessible because other information obstructs retrieval.

Chunking

Combining and grouping smaller bits of information into larger pieces to increase memory capacity.

Consistency bias

The tendency to overestimate how much our past attitudes and behaviors matched our current attitudes and behaviors, in a way that biases memory.

Dissociative amnesia

Loss of memory for personal or autobiographical information.

Elaborative rehearsal

Memorization technique that involves generating meaning as you repeat the information.

Encoding

The process for getting memories into your brain.

Interference

Information that gets in the way of other memories, either retroactively or proactively.

Long-term memory

Information that you retain in a lasting and relatively permanent way.

Maintenance rehearsal

Memorization technique that involves purposeful verbal or mental repetition and review of material to encourage learning.

Memory

The process by which we store images, information, events, and skills, then recall them later.

Misinformation effect

Occurs when overt suggestions, questions, or incorrect information alter an originally correct memory.

Mnemonic

A memory aid or technique to help remember specific information, especially lists.

Overlearning

Continual studying or practicing of material to strengthen memory.

Recall

The ability to remember information without that information present.

Recognition

The ability to remember information after seeing or experiencing it.

Retrieval

Recovering memories for use now.

Schemas

Existing collections of thoughts or knowledge that help you make sense of new information.

Self-reference effect

The tendency to remember personally relevant information more easily.

Sensory memory

The ability to briefly preserve physical features of sensory stimuli.

Serial position curve

The tendency to have better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list.

Short-term memory

Working memory.

Source amnesia

Remembering information, but not being sure where or how you learned it.

Spacing effect

Learning information across multiple sessions throughout a longer time span improves long-term memory.

Storage

A way to retain memories over time.

Testing effect

Improving long-term memory by practicing retrieval while learning new information.

Working memory

A system that actively processes different types of information such as ideas, images, and sounds from multiple sources.