C62 - Midterm Official Notes

AZA

Association of Zoos and Aquariums, a group that provides accreditation to zoos meeting specific standards.

Zoogeography

Branch of biogeography that focuses on the distribution of animals across the planet. How TZ is organized, unlike bird house, aquarium, butterfly conservatory, and reptilia.

AZA budget

Toronto: $50 million annual operating budget (39 million USD)

Median is about 4 million USD, max 213 M, min 884.

Toronto Zoo Mission Statement

Our Toronto Zoo - Connecting people, animals and conservation science to fight extinction

Toronto Zoo Core Values

1. SAVE WILDLIFE - create a centre of excellence in conservation, sustainability, animal care, and science

2. IGNITE THE PASSION - build the team for the future

3. CREATE WOW - re-imagine the guest experience

4. OUR COMMUNITY + OUR ZOO - envision our zoo as the heart of our community

5. REVOLUTIONIZE ZOO TECHNOLOGY - lead the way for innovation in technology for zoos worldwide

Toronto Zoo

• is relatively young

• has a high operating budget

• is physically very large

• is organized based on zoogeography (few exceptions)

• is operated at the municipal level

• makes a significant contribution towards conservation

Animal welfare science

The study of the well-being and humane treatment of animals, particularly in captivity.

Reproductive science

The study of reproduction and breeding techniques, particularly in conservation efforts. Endocrinology, gamete biology (artificial insemination), biobank.

Alpha diversity

Local diversity. The measure of species diversity within a single community or ecosystem.

Gamma diversity

Regional diversity. The measure of diversity among different ecosystems or communities.

Beta diversity

Spatial turnover.The measure of change in species composition between different ecosystems.

Phyletic speciation

A gradual transformation of one species into another over evolutionary time.

Genetic Diversity

Variation within a species’ genes (among individuals, between populations)

Species diversity

All life on earth, varies locally, regionally, across larger scales

Ecosystem diversity

Variation of species across ecosystems, variation of ecosystems within an area

Global biodiversity

Entire planet. Species can be isolated by mountains, oceans, distances over long periods. Rates of species, extinction, and dispersal all affect species diversity and composition differences.

Regional biodiversity

incl. smaller geographic areas where climate is roughly uniform / where species restricted by dispersal limitations. Regional species pool (gamma diversity) is all of the species within a region. Differs between regions based on variations in speciation, extinction and dispersal rates.

Landscape biodiversity

The physical geography of a region (number and distribution of mountains, valleys, deserts, islands, lakes) has strong impact on region biogeography. Differs based on how landscape shapes extinction and dispersal rates within local habitats.

Local scale

Suitability of abiotic and biotic factors to support species from regional pool, and how species interactions affect ability of species to persist in local area (communities). Local (community) species diversity = alpha diversity. Turnover (Beta diversity) is the change in species composition across a landscape as move from local community to another.

Hybrid speciation

The formation of a new species through the hybridization of two parent species.

Biological species concept

A species is a group of individuals that can interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring

Strength: interbreeding, reproductive isolation

Weakness: Asexual species, fertile hybrids, allopatric species, fossils, isolate taxa

Mixing dogs work

Morphological species concept

A species is a group of individuals that can act distinctly from other groups based on their morphology, biochemistry, or physiology.

Strength: characteristics, fossils, asexual, allopatric

Weakness: Sexually dimorphic species can be misleading, geographic variation in morphology, cryptic species, how much variation is enough (arbitrary)

Morphospecies

A taxon that is probably an individual species based on their appearance but has not been recognized as such as of yet.

Phenetic species concept

Problems with MSC led to this. Measure lots of characteristics to produce data (idea - less subjective). Use numbers to differentiate groups into species. This approach is still arbitrary and subjective (weakness)

Evolutionary species concept

A species is a group of individuals that share unique similarities of their DNA, and thus share an evolutionary history.

Strength: DNA is basice genetic information, includes history

Weakness: pretty vague, arbitrary, DNA-based relationships can be confusing to delimit.

Adaptive radiation

The rapid diversification of a group of organisms into forms that fill different ecological niches.

Following colonization, mass extinction, or key innovation. Can increase biodiversity.

Extinction

Species has completely disappeared

Extinction in wild

Species exists in ex-situ only (zoos or natural non-native, cultivated population)

Extirpation

Species exist in wild elsewhere, but is no longer in specific area (note: can be applied to local and regional extinction)

Local extinction

Extinction of species locally, but it exists elsewhere

Regional extinction

Extinction of species from country or region of interest, but it exists in wild elsewhere

Ecological extinction

Species exists in in-situ, but populations are very small - species has significant impact on its community

Endemism

A species that is geographically restricted to a region (when endemic is lost in one area, it is lost globally)

Stochastic processes

(1) demographic uncertainty (small pop), (2) environmental uncertainty (weather, food, disease), (3) natural catastrophe (floods, fires, drought), (4) genetic uncertainty (genetic makeup changes)

At risk of extinction

Hunted, large body size, low reproductive rate, poor dispersers, season migrants, lack genetic diversity, pristine environment with no human contact, allee effect, close relatives at risk.

IUCN red list

Assesses extinction risk of known species based on recommendations of groups of taxonomic experts using published scientific research

• Conservation planning

• Decision-making

• Monitoring target species

Four method of managing threatened species

1. Removing other stressors

2. In-situ management

3. Assisted migration

4. Species rescue (ex-situ)

Trigger approaches

Priority sites require one endangered or critically endangered species - only if it is the SOLE AREA where this species occurs, giving it significance. Definable boundary within which the character of habitats, bio communities, and/or management issues have more in common with each other than they do with those in adjacent areas.

EDGE Extinction Programme

EDGE Extinction Programme

focus on threatened species that represent a significant amount of unique evolutionary history. Protect taxa. Weird looking animal with close relatives. Website highlighting top 100 EDGE species.

flagship species - charismatic, draw financial support

Environmental stochasticity

The unpredictable changes in environmental conditions that can affect populations.

Demographic stochasticity

Random fluctuations in population dynamics due to changes in birth and death rates.

Genetic drift

Random changes in allele frequencies in a population due to chance events.

Allee effect

The phenomenon where individuals have a lower fitness at low population densities.

Species Survival Plan (SSP)

A program that manages the breeding of a species in captivity to ensure genetic diversity.

Well-being

The state of an animal's health and happiness, encompassing their physical and psychological needs.

Enrichment

The practice of enhancing the living environment of animals to promote natural behaviors.

Behavioural husbandry

The management practices that promote the well-being of captive animals through training and care.

FAWC (Farm Animal Welfare Council)

An organization that sets welfare standards for farm animals, including the five freedoms.

Five Freedoms

Principles for animal welfare: freedom from hunger, discomfort, pain, fear, and to express normal behavior.

Translocation

The movement of individuals from one location to another for conservation purposes.

Captive breeding

Breeding species in controlled environments, such as wildlife reserves and zoos.

Assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs)

Biotechnological methods used to induce breeding, such as artificial insemination.

Genetic purging

The process of reducing the frequency of deleterious alleles in a population.

Outbreeding depression

A reduction in fitness of offspring resulting from breeding between genetically distant individuals.

Ecosystem diversity

The variety of ecosystems in a given area, contributing to biodiversity.

Evolutionary Significant Units (ESUs)

Populations of a species that have significant genetic variation and evolutionary history. Identified based on unique variation in neutral genetic markers - no taxonomic status, akin to morphospecies. Better than BSC.

Inbreeding depression

Reduced biological fitness in a population due to inbreeding.

Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs)

Reviews conducted to assess potential environmental effects of a project.

Headstarting

A conservation strategy where animals are raised in captivity before being released into the wild.

Living Planet Report

An assessment of global and regional biodiversity and the health of ecosystems.

Convention on Biological Diversity

An international treaty aimed at conserving biological diversity and sustainable use of resources. Aichi targets are strategic targets for biodiversity.

Greenlist

IUCN definition of a species that is fully recovered in its natural range, viable, and fulfilling ecological roles.

Species at Risk Act (SARA)

Canadian federal legislation aimed at protecting endangered and threatened species.

Endangered Species Act (ESA)

Ontario legislation aimed at protecting species at risk of extinction.

Taxon Advisory Groups (TAGs)

Expert groups within AZA that provide recommendations for the management of species.

Environmental resistance

Factors that limit population growth and affect biodiversity.

Translocation biology

The study of movement of species to conserve their populations.

Community services in conservation

Outreach programs connecting zoos with local communities to promote conservation.

Wildlife conservation

Efforts to protect and manage wildlife populations and their habitats.

Awareness campaigns

Efforts to educate the public about environmental issues and conservation needs.

Conservation technology

Innovations and methods developed to enhance conservation work.

Species recovery plan

A strategy developed to restore and conserve populations of endangered species.

Carl Hagenbeck

Tierpark. 1900s, ethics of animal and human entertainment question. Increased emphasis on presentation. Animal park - Tierpark, panoramas, more naturalistic setting.

Heini Hediger

Father of zoo biology. From human-perspective to animal-perspective. Adavanced animal care. Habitat designed on natural history of species.

William Temple Hornaday

Director of National Zoo, Bronz Zoo. Hunter to a onservationist based on Bison. Gorillas will never be in zoos - zoos were a collection, enable visual.

Menageries

Zoos before they were zoos. Sign of wealth, status, empires’s reach. Empire has relations far off. Terrible housing

Vienna zoo

First zoo to be opened to the public in 1752, still called menagerie

London Zoo

Est. 1826, first zoo for scientific study and the first to use the term zoo. Founded and funded with public money by Zoological Society of London.

Husbandry advancements

We have 793 gorillas in zoos, with 16 births last year. Zoos have changed so much. Nutrition has drastically changed - we used to feed large herbivores human food.

AZA Evaluation Criteria

Animal health, staff, living environment, social conditions, nutrition, conservation, enrichment, education, safety procedures, guest services, finances.

Four main areas of conservation biology

Captive animal management, translocation biology, conservation education, small population biology

Six pillars at the Toronto Zoo

Research and compliance operation, species recovery and assessment program, veterinary science, reproductive science, nutrition science, welfare science.

Arguments Against Zoos

“They are fundamentally wrong” - support in-situ projects, make self-sustaining populations for eventual release.

“Conservation and education claims by zoos are unjustified” - individual animals help education, train conservationist

“Operationall poor” - AZA accredited

Toronto Zoo Welfare Framework

A holistic approach to animal well-being focused on 5 domains - nutrition, environment, behaviour, health, and overall mental state.

Welfare assessment toolkit

1. Annual welfare assessment

2. Quality of life form

3. Life event/change quiz

4. Zoomonitor program

Inputs/opportunities (food quality, vet service, enrichment) and outputs/indicators (activity budget, immune function, reproductive success)

Physical husbandry

food, water, cleaning

Behaviour husbandry

enrichment, training, mental stimulation

Cooperative care

getting the animals to assist us in caring for them. Easy to take blood from a polar bear that is trained. Sedating costs a lot, and stresses animals out a lot. Very dangerous as well. Focus on medical behaviours, mitigating stress, ensuring choice.

Enrichment Categories

Social, cognitive, physical habitat, sensory, food.

Small population paradigm

Population viability and population size are directly proportional to each other. Critical threshold and then jump very high.

Extinction vortex

Tendency for small populations to decline towards extinction over time.

Genetic stochasticity

Drift and inbreeding, and their impacts on future adaptive potential of a population

Interactive effect

Factors all reinforce each other to increase instabilities once population gets too small

Mechanisms of evolution

Mutations, natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow

Minimum viable population

MVP. For any given species, in any habitat, is the smallest isolated population having 99% chance of remaining extant fro 1000 years despite the foreseeable effect of demographic, environmental, and genetic stochasticity, and natural catastrophes.

Effective population size

the size of an ideal theoretical population that would lose heterozygosity (H) at same rate as the actual population of interest.

Genetic drift

Changes in allele frequency due to random chance (e.g. which allele makes it into gamete, which birds make it to island for a founder event)

Gene flow

Can introduce new alleles into populations and remove item. Alleles move between populations through immigration or emigration of individuals (followed by breeding)

Inbreeding and outbreeding depression.

Inbreeding depression

Breeding between close relatives in small populations leads to increased mortality of offspring, production of fewer offspring, unfit or sterile offspring with reduced mating. Rare deleterious alleles.

Outbreeding depression

Production of offspring that unfit, sterile, lack of adaptations for local environment due to interbreeding of individuals who are genetically too different from one another.