Vocab for Research Methodology Summative Quiz

anecdotal data

Data that is informal from accounts that are not systematically collected. It lacks scientific rigor.

bias

a limitation in objective thinking or research methodology that tends to sway results in a certain direction

bidirectional ambiguity

when the direciton of cause and effect between two variables is unclear

case study

a detailed analysis over time of an individual or small group. Case studies are a research method and usually include other methods, such as interviews and observations, to collect data.

causality

the relationship between cause & effect when one event or factor directly brings about another

construct

an abstract idea, concept, or variable that cannot be directly observed but is used to explain or measure aspects of human behavior.

correlational study

a type of study investigating relationships betweentwo or more variables without any controls

credibility

the degree to which the research gives a true picture of what is being investigated and/or that the results represent the opinions and perceptsions of the research participants.

cross sectional research

a type of study that collects data from participants at a single point in time

descriptive statistics

used to describe data, includes measures of dispersion and central tendency

experiment (true vs. quasi)

a research method that involves controls and the manipulation of the independent variable to determine its effect the dependent variable. In a true experiment, participants are randomly allocated to the IV. In a quasi experiment, researchers cannot manipulate the IV, instead the IV is based on pre-existing characteristics.

experimental controls

measures put in place during research to minimize the influence of extraneous variables that could affect the results. These controls help ensure that changes in the DV are due to the manipulation of the IV

experimental designs (independent vs. repeated measures)

independent measures - each participant experiences only one level of the IV. Repeated measures - each particpant experiences each level of the IV

external validity

the extent to which the research findings can be generalized to other populations, settings, and circumstances

extraneous variable

variables other than the independent variable in an experiment that can potentially influence the dependent variable. If not controlled, they can become confounding variables

focus group

a research method involving a small group discussion led by a facilitator to gather diverse opinions and insights on a particular topic

generalizability

the extent to which the research findings can be applied to a different populatio or other settings.

internal validity

in an experiment, the extent to which the observed results are due to the manipulation of the IV (instead of confounding variables). Having good experimental controls improves internal validity

longitudinal design

a research design in which data is collected from the same individuals over an extended time period

measurement

the quantification of some object (or in psychology, of behavior or cognition).

mundane realism

the degree to which a research study or experimental setting resembles real life situations and experiences

observation (naturalistic vs. controlled)

observations are research method involving the systematic recording of behavior in natural (a place the participants would normally be found) or controlled (any place chosen by the researcher) setting

observation (overt vs. covert)

overt - participants are aware that they are being observed; covert - participants are not aware they are being observed

observation (participant vs. non-participant)

In participant observations, researchers interact with the people being observed. In non-participant observations, the researchers do not interact with the participants.

operatolnalization

stating exactly how a variable will be manipulated or measured in experimental research

opportunity sampling

a sampling method where researchers gather people who are nearby or easily accessible, for example, sampling from university students

participant bias

occurs when participants in a study alter their behavior or responses due to their awareness of bein observed or their expectations about the study's purpose

perspective

a particular attitude or way of describing something; in psychology differing perspectives may derive from different approaches to research, gender, culture, etc.

positivism

Positivism emphasizes the use of emperical evidence and scientific methods to gain knowledge; it contrasts with more interpretive or qualitative approaches

prospective research

research that follows individuals over time, used to investigate outcomes of specific events or conditions

publication bias

when the results of research are selectively published based on the direction or significance of their findings. It can lead to a partial and biased representation of of the research literature

qualitative research

the collection and analysis of textual or verbal data to explore the meaning of people's behavior. Methods include interviews and observations, and the evidence is usually analyzed with thematic content anaylsis .

quantitative research

the collection and analysis of numerical data to examine relationships between variables. It relies on statistical techniques to test hypotheses and make inferences.

random sampling

a probabilistic sampling method in which all members of a population have an equal chance of being selected

reflexivity

the researcher's own awareness of their own perspectives, biases, and values and how these may influence the research process and finidngs.

epistemological reflexivity

reflecting on how the process and methodology may have influenced the results or conclusions

personal reflexivity

reflecting on the researcher's own biases and values may have influenced their results or conclusions

rich data

data that has depth, nuance, and context

reliability

the consistency of measurement tools or methods. A reliable measure or assessment should yield consistent results when administered repeatedly under similar conditions and with similar populations

researcher bias

when a researcher's personal values or expectations influence the design, data collection, or interpretations of findings, potentially leading to biased results

responsibility

duty to someone or something. Psychologists have responsibility to their participants or their animal research subjects; they have social responsibility to ensure that public understands the uncertainty in research finidngs and in advocating for change in governmental policies in line with research findings.

retrospective research

this involves the examination of past events, data, or records to understand and analyze behavior that has already occurred. It relies on historical data and participant's memory

sampling bias

this occurs when the sample used in a research study is not representative of the population from which it was drawn and to which the findings may (attempt to be) generalized

self-reported data

data collected directly from individuals through their own accounts, typically through surveys, questionnaires, or interviews

self-selected sampling

a non-probabilistic sampling method where researchers advertize for participants, and interested volunteers contact the researchers

semi-structured interview

an interview approach combining open-ended and close ended questions, providing flexibility for in-depth exploration while maintaining some structure

snowball sampling

a non-probabilistic sampling method where researchers recruit a few participants, these participants then recruit others. Most often used for hard-to-access groups

stratified sampling

a sampling method in which researchers divide subjects into subgroups called strata based on characteristics that they share (e.g., race, gender, educational attainment). Once divided, each subgroup is individually sampled.

survey/questionnaire

a set of questions used to obtain information from a respondent about a topic of interest, such as attitudes, behaviors, personality, or values.

transferability

the extent to which findings from a study can be applied or generalized to other contexts or settings beyond the study's participants or conditions.