language variation due to internal and external factors

linguistic structure variation types

1. phonology (P)

2. morphosyntax (G)

3. lexicon (L)

4. semantics (S)

5. discourse pragmatics (D)

phonology/phonetics (P)

variation in speech sounds, pronunciation, and sound patterns.

• example: pronouncing “car” with a silent “r” vs. pronounced “r”

morphosyntax/grammatical (G)

variation in word formation and sentence structure/grammar

• example: using “he don’t know” vs. “he doesn’t know”

lexicon/lexical (L)

variation in word choice or vocabulary

• example: saying “soda” vs. “pop” vs. “cold drink”

semantics (S)

variation in meanings or interpretation of words/phrases.

• example: the word “cool” meaning “cold” vs. “fashionable”

discourse pragmatics (D)

variation in language use in context, including conversation structure , politeness, and implied meanings.

• example: responding “yeah, right” sincerely vs sarcastically

enregisterment

a process whereby distinct forms of speech come to be socially recognized as indexical of speakers attributes by a population of language users. 

• example: pronunciation and socioeconomic status (the variation between “walking” → “walkin”), southern speak, or valley girl. 

overt prestige

The value explicitly attached by a group of people to forms or

variants which they consider ‘correct’; it is usually associated

with ‘standard’ forms of language. people choose to use standard language varieties to signal authority or professionalism. 

• example: using standard American English in formal settings vs. vernacular

covert prestige

The value implicitly attached by a group of people to forms or variants which they frequently use but claim to avoid. It usually relates to local or ‘non-standard’ forms whose use is often frowned upon, but that at the same time also index solidarity. speakers may choose to use non-standard language varieties to express identity, solidarity, and group membership. 

• example: using AAVE in casual conversation with peers to express solidarity or authenticity. 

dependent variables 

this is the linguistic feature being measured. 

• example: the use of /r/ pronunciation, choice between “soda” vs. “pop”.

independent variables

social or linguistics factors hypothesized to influence the dependent variable.

• example: social categories like age, gender, social class, phonological environment, etc. 

adolescents language innovators

adolescents tend to be language innovators because this developmental stage is marked by a strong need of social identity. they create and adopt new linguistic forms to express group membership, differentiate themselves, and assert individuality.

• examples: “sus” “67” “type sh*t” “no cap”

two major theories on the origin of AAVE

1. The Anglicist Hypothesis

2. The Creolist Hypothesis

The Anglicist Hypothesis

African American slaves in the South worked alongside and learned English from indentured servants who spoke non-mainstream varieties of English (e.g., immigrants of Scots-Irish descent). This would explain similarities between AAE and Appalachian English

The Creolist Hypothesis

Slaves of different language backgrounds developed a pidgin (a simplified version of a language) which subsequently developed into a full-fledged creole language that children acquired in their homes (e.g., Gullah, creoles of Barbados, Jamaica). However, ex-slave / expatriate text analysis shows that earlier AAE / expat AAE was not as distinct from postcolonial EAE varieties as would have been predicted under the creolist hypothesis.

ebonics

a term coined by Robert Williams in 1973. a term that acknowledged the linguistics complexity and African linguistic heritage of Black speech. AAVE

pidgins

the “contact code” of people who have no native or well-learned L2 in common

• example: Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea originally emerged as a pidgin for communication between English speakers and indigenous people

creole

the language that develops once children are born into the Pidgin context, the principle language of a speech community

• example: Haitian Creole developed from a French-based pidgin and is now the mother tongue of millions in Haiti

• types of creole & location: Louisiana creole (southern Louisiana), Gullah (coastal south Carolina & Georgia), Hawaiian creole (Hawaii).

an ethnolect

an ethnolect is a variety of a language associated with a specific ethnic group, reflecting its cultural and linguistic heritage. Ethnolects can have distinctive features in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, or discourse patterns, often shaped by influence from the group's original or heritage language, even as speakers shift toward the mainstream language of the broader society.

• example: AAVE, Chicano English, Etc.

Spanglish

Spanglish refers to the blending or alternating of Spanish and English within speech or writing, especially in bilingual communities.

types of Spanglish and locations: Chicano English (U.S. southwest), Miami English (south Florida), Puerto Rican English (nyc, nj, chicago, pr), etc.