research methods quiz 1

producers vs consumers of research

Producers conduct studies

consumers-reading scientific studies

Empricism vs quantitative vs qualitative

Empiricism–using evidence from the sciences or from instruments that assist the senses as a basis for conclusions

Quantitative methods-turn empirical observations into numbers  

Qualitatives methods-rich descriptions that are not simplified into numbers  

what is reflexivity?

Reflexivity-self consciously considering how their background shapes what questions they ask and interpretations

what does it mean to say: behaavioral research is probalisitics?

Behavioral research is probabilistics, which means its findings are not expected to explain all the cases all the time(i.e. There are exceptions)

What are four recurring intuition biases?

Being swayed by a good story 

Being persuaded by what easily comes to mind

Focusing on the evidence we expect

Being biased about being biased(not knowing we have biases)

What is confirmation bias?

Confirmation—Focusing on what we expect. Trusting a claim because you believe it more 

what does it mean to have a bias blind spot?

Being biased about being biased

Individual exceptionalism —Not believing that you can be biased

What are frequency claims?

A level or rate of one variable 

Measure one focal variable 

“62% prefer music while studying”

What are association claims?

Two variables vary together 

Measure 2 or more variables 

“Music time relates to recall”

What are causal claims?

Changing A changes B 

Usually an experiment; all three causal criteria 

“Music improves recall” 

What is construct validity?

Do the operations capture the concepts?

Warning sign: “smarter” measured by one recall task 

What is statistical validity?

How large, precise, and consistent is the result?\

Warning Sign: a wide interval; an unstable estimate 

What is Internal validity?

Can another cause explain the difference? Remove the problem variables 

Warning Sign: music group also gets a quieter room

What is external validity?

To whom and where does it generalize?

Warning Sign: one club used to speak for all students

what are the 3 criteria for a causal claim?

Covariance —The proposed cause and outcome vary together

Temporal precedence—The proposed cause occurs before the outcome 

Internal validity—The design rules out plausible alternative explanations 

Explain what respect for persons is.

Treat people as autonomous agents when they can decide for themselves 

Provide added protection when autonomy is diminished or choice is constrained 

Consent is evidence of respect only when the choice is genuinely informed and voluntary

What does respect for persons look like in practice?

Meaningful informed consent 

Voluntary participation and withdrawal 

Protection from coercion and undue influence

what is beneficence?

Beneficence is an obligation to protect participant welfare

Core question: Are the remaining risks justified by the value of the knowledge and/or direct benefit? 

what does beneficence look like in practice?

Do not expose people to unnecessary harm 

Reduce risks to what is necessary for the research question 

Maximize possible benefit when feasible(such as sharing valuable information) 

what is justice in ethics?

Justice asks who carries the burden of research and who receives its benefits 

A defensible sample is selected because it fits the scientific question–not merely because a group is convenient, dependent, or easy to influence 

Core question: Is participant selection fair?

what two principles does the APA have in its principles besides the belmont 3?

Fidelity and responsibility 

Integrity

What are the differences between the Belmont Report, the APA Ethics Code, the Common Rule (45 CFR 46), and the IRB/human research protection program?

Belmont report→ethical principles for human-subjects research 

APA ethics code→professional principles+enforceable standards for psychologists

Common rule(45 CFR 46)-->federal human-subjects protections 

IRB/Human research protection program→institutional review and oversight 

—IRBs include scientific, nonscientific, and unaffiliated perspectives and evaluate risks, consent, privacy, and safeguards 

How does vulnerability tie into ethics?

Additional safeguards may be needed when people have constrained choice or diminished autonomy, including: 

-Children 

-Prisoners

-People with impaired decision-making capacity 

-Economically or educationally disadvantaged participants 

deception should only be used when?

The study has significant scientific, educational, or applied value

An effective nondeceptive alternative is not feasible

Participants are not deceived about procedures expected to cause physical pain or emotional distress 

Proper debriefing should include what?

-Explain the deception 

-Correct misconceptions 

-Address or minimize harm 

-Permit participants to withdraw their data when deception was integral to the study 

What are the differences between exempt category, expedited review, and full board review?

Exempt category→ certain limited-risk activities defined by regulation; institutions typically determine eligibility 

Expedited review→ eligible minimal-risk research reviewed by the IRB chair or designated experienced reviewer(s)

Full-board review→ convened IRB review when research is not eligible for exempt/expedited pathways or raises greater concerns 

Expedited does NOT mean “less ethical review”. The same approval criteria apply 

what are the 3 Rs in animal ethics?

Replacement–use non-animal alternatives when feasible 

Reduction–use the fewest animals consistent with sound science 

Refinement–reduce pain, distress, and improve welfare 

Why is empirical research more reliable than personal experience or intuition?

Experience has no comparison group and is confounded

Without a comparison group, improvement can be misattributed

—A change over time is not enough 

What is the availability heuristic? The present/present bias?

availability: Being persuaded by what comes to mind 

Present: a tendency to fail to think about what you cannot see, focusing only on information right infront of you, ignoring compariosn groups or other infomation

what are Characteristics of the scientific approach?

The scientific approach isa systematic, evidence-based method used to acquire knowledge, test ideas, and understand how the natural world works

What is the difference between empirical journal articles and review articles?

Empirical journal articles present original, data-driven research conducted by the authors, whereas review articles summarize and synthesize existing research previously published by others.