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part 1
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Hemholtz’s Idea in understanding attention
Mental processign affects perception. We pay attention to somet hings and ignore others
Voluntary (goal directed) attention
You choose what to focus on (ex. Studying)
Involuntary (Stimulus driven) attention
something unexpected grabs attention (ex. loud bang)
Overt attention
Physically looking at what you focus on
Covert attention
Paying attention without moving your eyes "(peripheral vision)
Cocktail party effect
Ability to focus on one voice while ignoring others (like what you do when you’re at a party)
Dichotic Listening
Two messages being played in one ear, participants shadowed (repeated) one message, they could not report details of the message they weren’t focusing on. Proved attention filters what gets processed
Sensory memory
briefly hold all incoming information
filter
selects information based on physical properties (like pitch or location)
Detector
processes meaning of selected information and sends it to short-term memory
Broadbent’s Filter theory
Paying attention to one thing means ignoring others
Posner et al 1978
Participants fixated on a centerpoint. Were given valid cue (told correct location of next stimulus), invalid cue (told wrong location), no cue (no direction given). The results were valid cues=faster responses, invalid cues=slower responses.
Datta and DeYoe (2009)/ covert attention- paying attention without moving eyes
Participants told to focus covertly on different parts of a disk, fMRI showed brain activity (V1 area) increased where they focused attention, researchers could then predict where attention was directed with 100% accuracy. Covert attention enhances processing just like overt attention
Feature integration theory (treisman)
we don’t fully see an object until we pay attention to it. attention binds features (color, shape, movement) into one whole perception
Preattentive stage (feature integration theory)
happens automatically and unconsciously. Features (color, size, shape) are processed seperately
Focused attention stage (feature integration theory)
conscious perception occurs
Illusory conjunctions
Mixing up features when attention of unfocused
Treisman and Schmidt (1982)
Participants saw black numbers and colored letters flashed quickly. often reported wrong color- letter pairs (ex. red S instead of a red T), when focused attention was used, errors disappeared. Attention is needed to correctly combine features
Visual concept
Searching for an object requires comparing all possible options (ex. finding waldo in a picture)
Feature search
a type of visual search. looking for one distinct feature (ex. a red dot among blue ones). Fast and automatic (preattentive)
Conjunction search
a type of visual search. looking for combination features (ex. a green horizontal bar). slower, requires focused attention
Treisman and Gelade (1980)
Searching for a “T” among “I” ‘sand “Y”’s= fast (simple feature), searching for “T” among “Z”’s and “I”’s= Slow (needs feature combination). Disting featues make searching automatic; combines require attention. ex.) looking for a friend wearing a bright orange hoodie in a crowd= fast feature search (stimulus- driven)
Inattentional blindness
missing something obvious because attention is focused elsewhere
voluntary inattentional blineness (attentional failure)
focusing on your friend’s voice in a restaraunt
involuntary inattentional blindeness (attentional failures)
looking at the server who drops dishes. involuntary shifts can temporarily override voluntary attention
Fixation
when your eyes pause and focus (use central vision)
Saccade
quick jumps between fixation (~3 per second)
Motor signal (MS); Corollary Discharge Theory
commands eyes to move
Corollary Discharge Signal (CDS); Corollary Discharge Theory
Copy of that command sent elsewhere
Image Displacement Signal (IDS); Corollary Discharge Theory
Reports how the image moves across the retina
The comparator
compared CDS and IDS. if IDS but no CDS= brain thinks object moved. if IDS+ CDS=brain knows you moved your eyes, not the object
Predictive Remapping
brain shifts attention to new location just before your eyes move, then vision stays stable
Bottom-up (stimulus driven) influence
Attention captured by when stands out (brightness, contrast, movement). Creates a saliency map showing attention grabbing spots. first few fixations= bottom up
Top-down (goal driven) influence
Based on goals, expectations, or knowledge. later fixations= top down
Shinoda et al
driving simulator study, people looked more at stop signs at intersections than in the middle of blocks. tasks demands and expectations influence attention
Vo and Henderson study
showed kitchen scenes with weird objects (like a printer on a stove), people looked longer at “out of place” items, early fixations= bottom up; later fixations= top down
Yarbus (1967)
eye tracking showed scanning patterns change depending on the task (ex. judging age vs. remembering clothing)
Land and Hayhoe (2001)
When making a sandwich, peole look at the ingredients right before using them (just in time fixations)
Henderson (2017)
we look at where we expect things to appear, when something unexpected happens we fixate longer
Attention improves..
speed of response, clarity, contrast, and detail in perception
Posner’s percuing study
directing attention to a location= faster reaction times
Same-Object Advantage (Egly et al., 1994)
Cueing one side of an object made responses faster to other parts of the same object.
Marino and Scholl (2005)
proved it’s about the object, not just the location
Carrasco et al (2004)/ perception effects
covert attention made cued areas look like they had higher contrast. attention literally changes how we see
O’ Craven et al (1999)/ perception effects
when shown overlapping images ofa house and a face, focusing on one activated its specific brain region
Womelsdorf et al (2006)/ perception effects
in monkeys, shifting covert attention moved receptive field activation- attention changes how neurons respond
Huth et al (2012)/ object based attention
fMRI showed that different brain regions respond to different object categories (faces, tools, etc.). created a “category map” of brain responses
Cukur et al (2013)/ object based attention
when participants looked for a specific object (ex. people vs. cars), brain representation shifted. More brain space devoted to the target object category. Attention warps how the brain represents visual information
Inattentional blindness is
missing visible things due to lack of attention
Change blindness
failing to notice differences between scenes until attention is directed there