Cognitive Development and Barriers to Learning

Flashcards based on lecture notes about cognitive development theories and barriers to learning.

Symbolic Thinking

Using words or pictures to represent objects; develops rapidly between ages 2-7.

Centration

Focusing on only one aspect of a situation, common in the pre-operational stage.

Lack of Conservation

The understanding that quantity stays the same even if appearance changes; often lacking in the pre-operational stage.

Decentring

Considering multiple aspects of a situation; understanding others may have different views.

Egocentrism

Thinking only from one’s own perspective; common in the pre-operational stage.

Self-Regulation Development Through Play

Learning to follow rules, take turns, control impulses and emotions through role-play and structured games.

Obedience and Punishment

Avoiding punishment.

Self-Interest

Focusing on personal benefits.

Good boy/girl orientation

Gaining approval from others.

Law and Order

Obeying rules to maintain social order.

Social Contract

Belief that rules can be changed for fairness.

Universal Ethical Principles

Morality based on justice, even if it breaks laws.

Ubuntu

A South African philosophy which emphasizes community and interconnectedness.

Increasing Empathy in Early Childhood

Using role play and storytelling, modeling empathetic behavior, and promoting sharing and teamwork.

Concrete Operational Stage

Thinking becomes logical and organized, but still based on real things (concrete).

Classification

Grouping objects by categories; a cognitive skill developed in the concrete operational stage.

Seriation

Arranging objects in order (e.g., smallest to biggest); a cognitive skill developed in the concrete operational stage.

Reversibility

Understanding actions can be reversed (e.g., 4 + 2 = 6, so 6 - 2 = 4); a cognitive skill developed in the concrete operational stage.

Rehearsal

Repeating information to remember it.

Organization

Grouping things together to remember them.

Elaboration

Making links between new information and what is already known to improve memory.

Metacognition

Thinking about one's own thinking (

Effect of School Setting on Cognitive Development

Introducing structure, discipline, and routine; encouraging thinking, creativity, and teamwork; Literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving skills are built.

Influence of Parents and Family Structure

Support and expectations influence confidence and motivation; changes in family structure can affect emotional security.

Influence of Peers

Teach cooperation, conflict resolution, and friendship skills.

Stopping Bullying in Schools

Clear school policies and rules, encouraging reporting, teaching empathy, and collaboration between staff and parents.

Self-Concept

Self-description in terms of traits and abilities, influenced by feedback from others.

Self-Esteem

Feeling about oneself that depends on success in valued areas and influenced by reinforcement and comparison

Formal Operational Stage

Thinking becomes abstract and hypothetical; ability to imagine "what if" scenarios.

Deductive Reasoning

Solving problems using logic; develops during the formal operational stage.

Changes in Parent-Adolescent Relationship

Seeking more independence and personal space, which can cause tension with parents.

Peer Pressure

Feeling from peers that influences identity, choices, and behavior.

Level 0 Egocentric (Selman)

Can’t yet understand another person’s point of view.

Level 1 Subjective Role-Taking (Selman)

Realises others have different views but still based on their own logic.

Level 2 Self-Reflective (Selman)

Can imagine how others feel or think about them.

Level 3 Mutual Role-Taking (Selman)

Can step into someone else’s shoes and view a situation from a third-person perspective.

Identity Diffusion (Marcia)

Based on exploration and commitments, has no direction, hasn’t explored or committed to any identity.

Foreclosure (Marcia)

Based on exploration and commitments, commits without exploring (e.g., adopting parents’ values blindly).

Moratorium (Marcia)

Based on exploration and commitments, explores options, but not yet committed (figuring it out).

Identity Achievement (Marcia)

Based on exploration and commitments, has explored different paths and made firm commitments (strong sense of self).

Language and Communication Barriers

Learners may not be taught in their home language, making learning harder.

Poverty and Socio-economic Factors

Lack of access to resources (food, stationery, transport).

Disabilities

May include hearing impairments, learning disorders, etc.

Inadequate or Untrained Teaching Support

Teachers may not be trained to meet diverse needs.

Negative Attitudes and Labelling

Discrimination, bullying, and low expectations from others.

Malnutrition

Poor nutrition stunts brain development and concentration.

Mental Health

Depression, anxiety, trauma, and stress often go undiagnosed, especially in under-resourced schools.

Traditional Beliefs

Some communities may not recognise conditions like autism or mental illness, seeing them as “bad behaviour” or “curses.”

Limited Access to Healthcare

Rural or township areas may lack clinics or professionals to diagnose/treat issues.

Child-Headed Households

Kids caring for siblings due to absent parents (from HIV/AIDS, work, etc.).

Lack of Basic Needs

Hunger, no electricity to study, overcrowded homes = tired, distracted learners.

Stigma

Disabilities or illness may lead to bullying or shame, causing isolation.

Menstrual Health Issues

Lack of sanitary pads = missing school.

Teen Pregnancy

Girls may drop out or be stigmatised.

Gender-Based Violence

Sexual abuse and harassment, especially on the way to school or in communities.

Pressure to be 'Tough'

May not seek help for emotional issues or learning difficulties.

Dropout Risk

Some boys leave school early to work or due to gang influence.

Discipline Issues

Misunderstood behavioural problems may result in punishment instead of support.