Psych Unit 2.3-2.7

Memory

The mental capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information over time.

Encode

The process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory.

Store

Retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieve

Accessing and bringing stored information into conscious awareness.

Recall

Retrieving information from memory without cues.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information when presented again.

Relearning

Learning previously learned information again, often faster than the first time.

Effortful Processing

Conscious encoding of information that requires attention and effort.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of information without deliberate effort.

Shallow Processing

Surface-level encoding focusing on superficial features.

Deep Processing

Encoding focusing on meaning, leading to better retention.

Semantic Encoding

Encoding information based on meaning.

Sensory Memory

Brief storage of sensory information (sights, sounds, etc.).

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory (~<1 second).

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory (2–4 seconds).

Short-Term Memory

Temporary storage holding limited information for ~20–30 seconds.

Working Memory

Active system for manipulating information during complex tasks.

Central Executive

Directs attention and coordinates components of working memory.

Phonological Loop

Processes verbal and auditory information.

Visual-Spatial Sketchpad

Processes visual and spatial information.

Episodic Buffer

Integrates information from different sources into a coherent memory.

Long-Term Memory

Permanent, limitless storage of information.

Explicit Memories

Conscious memories of facts and events (declarative).

Semantic Memory

Facts, concepts, general knowledge.

Episodic Memory

Personal experiences and events.

Autobiographical Memory

Memory for personal life events.

Implicit Memories

Unconscious memories influencing thoughts and behavior.

Procedural Memory

Skills and actions.

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus affects response to another.

Hippocampus

Critical for forming new explicit memories and spatial navigation.

Neurogenesis

Creation of new neurons, contributing to learning and memory.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of synapses from repeated stimulation, underlying learning.

Memory Consolidation

Stabilization of newly learned information into long-term memory.

Reconsolidation

Process where retrieved memories are re-stored, which can modify their content or accuracy.

Serial Position Effect

Better recall for first and last items in a list.

Primacy Effect

Enhanced recall for first items.

Recency Effect

Enhanced recall for last items.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

Temporary inability to retrieve known information.

State-Dependent Memory

Memory retrieval is improved when internal state matches encoding state.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Tendency to recall memories consistent with current mood.

Flashbulb Memory

Vivid memory of emotionally significant events.

Deja Vu

Feeling of familiarity in a new situation.

Source Amnesia

Inability to remember the origin of a memory.

Cognitive Map

Mental representation of spatial layout.

Encoding Failure

Failure to process information into memory.

Storage Decay

Gradual loss of information over time.

Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve

Shows rapid initial forgetting, then leveling off.

Retrieval Failure

Inability to access stored information, often due to missing cues.

Proactive Interference

Old memories interfere with new learning.

Retroactive Interference

New learning interferes with old memories.

Repression

Unconscious blocking of distressing memories.

Motivated Forgetting

Forgetting memories to avoid distress.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories after onset.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories formed before onset.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

linking new information to existing knowledge to make it meaningful and store it in long-term memory.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units.

Mnemonics

Memory aids using associations, acronyms, or rhymes.

Method of Loci

Visualizing items along a familiar spatial route.

Hierarchies

Organizing information into categories or levels.

Spacing Effect

Distributed practice improves retention more than cramming.

Testing Effect

Retrieving information through testing enhances memory.

Interleaving

Mixing topics or subjects during study to enhance learning.

Maintenance Retrieval

Recalling information without deep processing.

Cued Recall

Using prompts to facilitate retrieval.

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias where someone overestimates their correctness or success

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for information that supports one’s existing beliefs or stereotypes 

Representativeness Heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind when evaluating a specific topic or decision, often leading to misjudgments. 

Availability Heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples or readily accessible information in memory when making judgments about probability or frequency, often leading to biases.