Caesars consulship

When did Caesar become consul and who was his colleague?

Caesar became consul in 59 BC alongside Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, an optimate and the son-in-law of Cato.

What was Caesar’s most urgent priority during his consulship?

His most pressing concern was settling Pompey’s veteran soldiers by securing land for them, fulfilling a key promise of the First Triumvirate.

How did Caesar initially deal with Pompey’s land proposal?

Caesar first presented the proposal to the Senate, allowing it to be debated rather than imposing it immediately, demonstrating a measured and constitutional approach.

Why did the optimates reject Caesar’s proposal for Pompey’s veterans?

Led by Cato, the optimates opposed the proposal because it strengthened Pompey and Caesar’s political position and increased the influence of the First Triumvirate.

What did Caesar do after the Senate rejected his land proposal?

Caesar transferred the proposal to the popular assembly, using the support of the Roman people rather than relying on senatorial approval.

Why did Caesar publicly question Pompey before the assembly?

Caesar asked Pompey whether he supported the bill and whether his veterans would defend it, publicly committing Pompey to Caesar’s programme and preventing him from siding with the optimates.

Why was Pompey’s public support for Caesar politically significant?

By openly backing Caesar and confirming his veterans would defend the legislation, Pompey removed any realistic possibility of joining the optimates against Caesar.

According to Cassius Dio, what did Caesar’s handling of the agrarian bill demonstrate?

Cassius Dio argues that Caesar deliberately relied on popular support and military loyalty rather than senatorial approval to achieve his political objectives.

How did Bibulus respond after the agrarian law passed the assembly?

Bibulus refused to accept the result, secured the support of three tribunes and attempted to obstruct the implementation of the law.

How did Bibulus attempt to prevent further legislation in 59 BC?

He declared the remainder of the year a sacred period, during which assemblies were legally forbidden from meeting.

Why was Bibulus’ declaration of a sacred period important?

As an augur, Bibulus claimed the gods opposed Caesar’s legislation, attempting to invalidate political decisions through religious authority.

How did Caesar react to Bibulus’ religious objections?

Caesar ignored Bibulus’ declaration and continued to conduct assemblies, demonstrating that political support outweighed religious obstruction.

Why did Bibulus fail to stop Caesar’s legislation?

The Roman people ignored his religious declarations and continued to support Caesar’s programme despite traditional constitutional objections.

What happened in the Forum before the agrarian law was passed?

The populace occupied the Forum overnight, ensuring strong public support when the assembly met.

How did Bibulus attempt to stop Caesar in the Forum?

Bibulus forced his way to the Temple of Castor, where Caesar was speaking, intending to oppose the legislation publicly.

What happened when Bibulus tried to address the crowd?

The crowd pushed Bibulus down the temple steps, broke his fasces and beat his accompanying tribunes and supporters.

Why was the breaking of Bibulus’ fasces significant?

The fasces symbolised magisterial authority, so breaking them represented a direct rejection of Bibulus’ constitutional power.

What was the immediate consequence of the violence against Bibulus?

The agrarian law was successfully passed despite his opposition.

What did Bibulus do after the Forum incident?

He withdrew to his house and remained there for the final eight months of his consulship, effectively abandoning active government.

How did Bibulus attempt to declare Caesar’s legislation illegal?

He claimed to have observed unfavourable omens while watching the skies and argued that the gods opposed Caesar’s laws.

Why did Bibulus’ religious objections ultimately fail?

Caesar’s legislation remained in force because political support from the people and the Triumvirate outweighed Bibulus’ constitutional protests.

What was the Campanian Law?

The Campanian Law redistributed the remaining public land in Campania into 20,000 plots for Pompey’s veterans and fathers of large urban families.

Who benefited from the Campanian Law?

Pompey’s veterans and fathers of large urban families received land through the redistribution programme.

What effect did the Campanian Law have on rural communities?

It displaced many rural peasants who had previously cultivated the public land.

Why was the Campanian Law symbolically important?

It demonstrated the increasing political importance of military veterans and the urban population in Roman politics.

How did Caesar use his consulship to benefit Crassus?

Through the tribune Publius Vatinius, Caesar secured a one-third rebate on Asian tax-farming contracts, satisfying Crassus and the equestrian order.

Why did the equites require a rebate on Asian tax contracts?

The tax-farming contracts had become financially unprofitable, causing major losses for the equites responsible for collecting taxes.

What was the significance of the tax rebate for Crassus?

It fulfilled one of the central aims of the First Triumvirate and strengthened Caesar’s alliance with Crassus and the equestrian order.

Who was Publius Vatinius and what role did he play?

Vatinius was a loyal tribune who helped Caesar secure Senate approval for changes to the Asian tax-farming contracts.

How did Caesar improve the lives of provincials during his consulship?

He introduced legislation restricting exploitation by Roman governors and their officials through stricter accounting rules and limits on gifts.

Why were Caesar’s provincial reforms controversial?

They removed long-standing opportunities for the nobiles to profit from provincial administration, provoking resentment among the optimates.

What abuses did Caesar attempt to prevent in the provinces?

He limited financial exploitation by governors and their staff through stricter accounting practices and restrictions on accepting gifts.

Why had provincial exploitation previously been tolerated?

Many members of Rome’s ruling elite regarded provincial profits as an acceptable reward for holding high office.

What military command did Caesar obtain after his consulship?

Caesar secured a five-year proconsular command over Cisalpine Gaul, Transalpine Gaul and Illyricum with three legions.

Why was Caesar’s provincial command significant?

It provided military experience, legal immunity from prosecution, opportunities for conquest and the foundation of his later political dominance.

What major achievements did Caesar accomplish during his consulship?

He secured land for Pompey’s veterans, ratified Pompey’s eastern settlements, granted Crassus’ tax rebate, introduced land reforms, improved provincial administration and obtained his Gallic command.

How did Caesar satisfy the urban poor during his consulship?

Through agrarian legislation, particularly the Campanian Law, which redistributed land to fathers of large urban families.

How did Caesar satisfy the equestrian order?

He granted the one-third rebate on Asian tax-farming contracts, directly benefiting the equites.

How did Caesar’s consulship weaken the optimates?

His reforms bypassed senatorial opposition, fulfilled the objectives of the First Triumvirate and reduced the political authority of conservative senators.

Why should historians avoid describing Caesar as simply a populist?

Populist politics had existed since the Gracchi, and Caesar’s actions were also driven by political alliances, personal ambition and traditional networks of amicitia rather than ideology alone.

How can Caesar’s support for Pompey and Crassus be interpreted?

It may be viewed as an attempt to restore their dignitas after repeated senatorial obstruction rather than simply advancing popular reform.

What does the First Triumvirate demonstrate about Roman politics?

It shows that informal networks of amicitia and mutual advantage could become more influential than traditional Republican institutions.

How could historians interpret Caesar’s first consulship?

Historians may see it either as necessary reform that overcame unreasonable senatorial obstruction or as the beginning of Caesar’s deliberate erosion of Republican constitutional practices.

To what extent did Caesar respect constitutional procedures during his consulship?

Caesar initially followed constitutional methods by presenting legislation to the Senate, but after rejection he increasingly relied on the popular assembly, popular support and political pressure to overcome opposition.

Why was Caesar’s first consulship a turning point in the late Republic?

It fulfilled the aims of the First Triumvirate, weakened the authority of the optimates, strengthened Caesar’s political position and secured the military command that ultimately enabled his rise to supreme power.