PSYC 1101 Exam 2

Personality

• A person’s unique and relatively stable pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving.

• Example: Someone who is consistently outgoing and talkative shows a stable personality trait of extraversion.

Psychodynamic Perspective (Freud)

• An approach that views personality as the result of unconscious conflicts, mostly formed in childhood, that influence thoughts and behavior.

• Id, Superego, Ego

Id

• Operates on the pleasure principle — seeks immediate gratification.

• Example: The urge to eat an entire cake even if you’re on a diet

Superego

• The moral part of the mind; represents internalized societal rules and ideals — the conscience.

• Ex: The voice in your head saying, “You shouldn’t eat that, it’s unhealthy.”

Ego

• The rational mediator — balances the id and superego using the reality principle

• Ex: You decide to have one small slice of cake now and save the rest for later.

Carl Jung

• Introduced the idea of the collective unconscious — a shared set of human memories and archetypes such as the Hero, Mother, and Shadow.

• Example: Myths about heroes exist across cultures.

• Ex: All around the world — even in places that never met — people tell stories about a hero who has to face danger, fight evil, and grow stronger (like Harry Potter, Moana, or Hercules).

  Carl Jung said this happens because the idea of the Hero lives in the collective unconscious — a deep part of the mind that every human shares.

  Even if you’ve never read those stories before, you still understand what a hero is supposed to be, because that image or “archetype” is built into your mind from birth.

Alfred Adler

• Proposed individual psychology — behavior is motivated by the desire to overcome feelings of inferiority (the inferiority complex).

• Example: A weak child growing up to become a bodybuilder

Karen Horney

• Emphasized social and cultural influences over sexual drives. Believed that unmet needs for love and security lead to anxiety.

Humanistic Perspective (rogers)

Focuses on human potential, personal growth, and self-fulfillment. People are naturally good when given supportive environments.

What helped create the humanistic aproach?

So, instead of focusing on pathology or childhood trauma, humanists looked at what helps people thrive — things like love, acceptance, and authenticity.

• Freud’s Psychodynamic theory (too focused on unconscious conflict and negativity), and

• Behaviorism (too focused on external rewards/punishments, ignoring internal experiences).

How Rogers Saw Personality Growth

Rogers believed everyone has a “self-actualizing tendency” — an inner drive to fulfill their potential.
But whether we reach it depends on the conditions in our environment.

Supportive environments → foster growth through:

1. Unconditional positive regard

2. Empathy

3. Genuineness

These three conditions allow a person to feel safe enough to explore their feelings, make mistakes, and still feel valued — leading to congruence and self-actualization.

Unconditional positive regard

• Acceptance, love, and value for a person without conditions. This is crucial for healthy development and self-esteem.

• A parent who says, “I love you no matter what mistakes you make.”

Empathy

• Understanding another’s feelings from their perspective.

Genuineness

• Being open and honest — not hiding behind a façade

• Why does this matter?   According to the humanistic perspective, people grow best when they are in relationships where others are real, kind, and accepting.
  Genuineness helps build trust and self-acceptance — it encourages both people to be their true selves.

Q-Sort Task (humanistic Perspective)

• Measures the distance between your current self and ideal self

• Most common attribute for being close to your ideal self: responsible, high personal standards

• Most common attribute for being furthest from your ideal self: confidence, assertive

• SMALLER GAPS = GREATER SELF-ACCEPTANCE

Hierarchy of needs

Maslow believed humans have a hierarchy of needs, where lower needs must be satisfied before higher ones can be reached.

1. Physiological Needs — food, water, shelter

2. Safety Needs — security, stability

3. Love and Belonging — family, relationships, community

4. Esteem — achievement, respect, competence

5. Self-Actualization — fulfilling one’s potential, creativity, authenticity

Example:
A person struggling to pay rent (level 1–2) won’t focus on creative goals (level 5) until basic needs are met.

Key goal of humanism: self-actualization

Becoming the best version of yourself — achieving your potential while staying true to your values.

Big Five (OCEAN)

1. Openness

2. Conscientiousness

3. Extraversion

4. Agreeableness

5. Neuroticism

Openness

Imaginative, curious, enjoys variety

• High example: loves art, new foods, travel

• Low example: prefers routine

Conscientiousness

Responsible, organized, dependable

• High example: always on time, good student

• Low exmaple, disorganized, careless

Extraversion

Sociable, energetic, outgoing

• High example - talkative, assertive

• Low example - reserved quiet

Agreeableness

Kind, cooperative, trusting

• High example: helpful, forgiving

• Low example: argumentative critical

Neuroticism

Anxious, moody, easily upset

• High example: worries a lot, stressed

• Low example: calm. emotionally stable

Trait perspectives

Traits: personality tendencies that endure over time

Emphasize describing personality over looking at how it develops

Lexical approach

if something is important to us, it should be reflected in our language

Personological and Life-Story Perspective

Personality is best understood through a person’s life narrative — their unique goals, motives, and experiences.

Personology (Murray)

• Focuses on the whole life of a person — motives, needs, and personal history.

• ANALYSIS ON MOTIVES!!!

• Example: First “offender profiles” in forensic psychology.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

• Projective test using ambiguous pictures to reveal motives and themes (like power, intimacy, or achievement).

• Example: A person describing a picture about helping others may have a strong intimacy motive.

Life Story Approach (Dan McAdams)

• Analyzes the stories people tell about their lives to uncover core motives and identity themes.

• Example: A life story focused on helping others reflects a “caregiver” narrative.

Biological Perspective

Examines genetic and brain-based influences on personality. About 50 % of personality is heritable.

Phineas Gage

A railroad worker whose frontal-lobe injury changed his personality (became impulsive and rude).
➡ Shows that specific brain areas affect personality control.

Extraversion vs. Introversion

Linked to brain arousal (Reticular Activation System):

• Extroverts: Lower baseline arousal → seek stimulation. LOWER BLOOD FLOW, seek stimulation to increase dopamine

• Introverts: Higher baseline sensitivity → avoid overstimulation.
  Example: Extroverts like parties; introverts prefer quiet settings.

• No differences in baseline arousal, BUT different levels of blood flow to the straitum

• Also linked to Reticular Activating System (RAS) — it helps control how alert or awake you feel.

• Everyone’s RAS works a little differently.

Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (Jeffrey Gray)

Two brain systems influence personality:

• Behavioral Activation System (BAS): rewards, positive emotionsApproach, rewards, linked to extraversion (ex. “I chase goals immediately”)

• Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS): aversive motives, avoidance, punishment, linked to neuroticism (ex. “criticism really upsets me”)

Neurotransmitters

• Low Serotonin → Higher Neuroticism (anxiety, mood swings).

• Dopamine sensitivity → Linked to Extraversion and reward seeking.

Social-Cognitive Perspective

Behavior is influenced by the interaction between personality traits and the situation.

Situationism (Walter Mischel)

Behavior changes depending on the context.
Example: Someone can be shy in class but outgoing at home.

Strong vs. Weak Situations

• Strong situations: Clear expectations (e.g., courtroom, job interview) → personality differences are hidden.

• Weak situations: Ambiguous, unstructured (e.g., party) → personality traits are more visible.

Self-Monitoring

How much people adjust behavior to match the situation.

• High self-monitors: Adapt easily to different social settings.

• Low self-monitors: Behave consistently across contexts.
  Example: A high self-monitor acts professional at work but silly with friends.

Social-Cognitive Perspective

• This perspective emphasizes that personality is shaped by interaction between thoughts, environment, and behavior — not just internal traits.

• It focuses on how people interpret and respond to situations using learning, memory, and belief systems.

Situationism

• The theory that behavior changes depending on the situation, not just personality traits.

• Ex. A person who is quiet at work but loud with friends.

CAPS Model (Cognitive-Affective Processing System)

• Proposed by Walter Mischel, it explains that personality involves a pattern of emotional and thought processes that interact across different contexts. Behavior results from how people process information and their emotional experiences.

• Someone may respond calmly in one stressful situation but panic in another, depending on how they interpret it.

• Information processing +emotional experiences across situations—> behaviors 

Reciprocal Determinism

• Developed by Albert Bandura, this is the idea that behavior, environment, and personal factors (like thoughts and beliefs) all influence one another.

• A student who believes they’re good at math studies more → gets good grades → builds confidence.

Self-efficacy

• A person’s belief in their ability to achieve goals or handle specific situations. A strong sense of self-efficacy increases motivation and persistence.

• Ex. A student who believes they can pass a difficult exam studies harder and succeeds.

Observational learning

• Learning by watching others and imitating their behaviors. A key part of Bandura’s theory.

• A child learns aggression by watching violent behavior on TV.

Locus of control

• The belief about what controls the outcomes in your life.

• Internal plus external

Internal locus of control

• Belief that you control your outcomes through effort and choices

• “I got the promotion because I worked hard”

External locus of control

• Belief that outside forces (luck, fate, others) control your outcomes

• “I didnt get the job because my boss didn’t like me”

Temperament

• Early personality tendencies seen in infants that predict later traits (e.g., inhibited vs uninhibited).

• A shy toddler often becomes a reserved adult.

• application ex. Teachers can tailor approaches to temperament (e.g., easing shy children into group play).

Rank Order Stability

• People maintain their relative ranking on traits across time, even if the expression changes.

• Someone who is more organized than peers at 20 will likely still be more organized at 50.

• Used in developmental psychology to track consistency in personality

Age-Related Change

• Traits show predictable trends with age — usually toward greater maturity.

• People become less neurotic, less open , and more agreeable and conscientious as they age

• older adults may be calmer and more reliable in the workplace compared to younger colleagues

Trait Manifestations

• How a trait is expressed may change with life stage

• A conscientious teen studies hard; an older adult manages finances carefully

• Shows that personality is stable, but behaviors adapt with context and age.

Core Traits Across Cultures

• The Big Five traits appear across cultures, especially Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness.

• Suggests these traits have a biological and universal basis, even though they vary slightly by culture.

• An outgoing person in the U.S. and in Japan both show Extraversion, but the behaviors may look different due to cultural norms.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

• Classifies people into 16 personality types based on 4 dichotomies (e.g., Introvert vs. Extravert).

• Popular in workplaces but lacks scientific reliability and validity; useful for self-reflection, not diagnosis.

Sex

A biological classification typically assigned at birth based on physical characteristics such as chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive anatomy.

Gender

A psychological experience — how a person identifies and expresses themselves, shaped by social norms and belieds of masculinity and femininity.

• ex. idenfifying as man, woman, nonbinary, or genderqueer

Many cultures have had identities outside the gender binary throughout history

• Fa’afafines in Samoan culture

• Two spirit in native cultures

• Muxes in southern Mexico

• Sekrata in Madagascar (Sakalava people)

• Toms in Thailand
  

Gender binary

The belief that there are only two genders — man and woman — based strictly on biological sex.

Beyond the binary

Recognition that gender exists on a spectrum and not everyone fits neatly into “male” or “female” categories.

• ex. identities like nonbinary, two-spirit, or genderfluid

Intersex (DSD- differences of sex development)

• A person born with biological traits (chromosomes, hormones, or anatomy) that don’t fit typical definitions of male or female.

• Someone with XY chromosomes but ovaries instead of tests

Brain and gender

• Brains do not fall neatly into “male” or “female” types — everyone’s brain shows both masculine and feminine patterns.

• A woman might show higher “masculine” spatial ability, while a man may show more “feminine” empathy — both are normal.

Gender Identity

• A person’s internal sense of their own gender — how they see themselves.

• Identifying as a man, woman, nonbinary, agender, genderqueer, or two-spirit

Gender Expression

The outward display of gender through clothing, hairstyle, mannerisms, or voice.

Gender Roles

• Societal expectations about how people should behave based on gender.

• In families, mothers might be expected to handle childcare while fathers handle finances, even when both parents work

Gender Stereotypes

• Simplified, often inaccurate beliefs about gender traits or behaviors.

• Can affect confidence — girls may avoid STEM fields because of stereotypes.

Cisgender

When a person’s gender identity matches their sex assigned at birth.

Transgender

When a person’s gender identity differs from the sex assigned at birth.

Social transition

• Changing social aspects like name, clothing, or pronouns to match gender identity

• being transgender does not require physical transitions

Gender Dysphoria

Psychological distress that can occur when gender identity doesn’t align with assigned sex.

• being transgender is not a disorder

Other types of transitions besides biological

• Using a preferred name, pronouns*

• Legal gender changes (where allowed)

Biological approach to gender

• Explains gender differences through biological and evolutionary factors (hormones, genetics, brain structure).

• Men tend to have higher testosterone, which relates to greater physical aggression

Evolutionary Approach 

• Suggests differences in mate selection and reproduction developed because of different parental investment between men and women.

• Women tend to value stability (resources, protection); men may prioritize physical attractiveness (fertility cues).

Social cognitive Approach

• Gender behavior develops through learning, observation, and reinforcement from the environment.

• ex. A boy is praised for playing sports and teased for playing with dolls — he learns “what boys do.”

Social Role Theory

• Gender roles form from observing the division of labor in society; people learn to associate traits with gender.

• Women seen as caregivers → stereotypes of being “nurturing”; men in leadership → stereotypes of being “assertive.”

Androgyny (Sandra Bem)

• The presence of both masculine and feminine traits in one person. Seen as psychologically healthy and flexible.

• Someone who is assertive (masculine) and nurturing (feminine).

Intersectionality

• The idea that gender interacts with other social categories (race, class, sexuality) to shape experience.

• A Black woman’s experiences differ from those of a white woman or Black man.

Sexual Orientation

• A person’s pattern of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others.

• Heterosexual, gay/lesbian, bisexual, pansexual, asexual.

Kinsey Scale

Measures sexuality on a continuum from 0 (heterosexual) to 6 (homosexual).

Minority Stress Model

Proposes that prejudice and discrimination cause chronic stress and poorer mental health in marginalized groups.

Passionate Love

• Intense emotional and physical attraction; involves sexual desire and excitement.

• The “honeymoon” phase of a new relationship.

• Driven by dopamine — linked to pleasure and motivation systems.

Companionate Love

Deep affection and emotional intimacy; based on commitment and care.

Proximity Effect

• The closer people are physically, the more likely they are to form relationships.

• Students becoming friends with dorm neighbors

Mere Exposure

• Repeated exposure to someone increases liking.

• - Seeing a classmate daily makes them seem more likable

• - Marketers use this to increase product preference through repetition

Physical attractiveness

• Plays a role in first impressions; people associate attractiveness with positive traits (“what is beautiful is good”).

• Symmetrical faces perceived as healthier and more attractive.

Social Exchange theory

• Relationships depend on balancing costs and benefits.

• Ex. Staying in a relationship that feels rewarding and fair.

Equity Theory

• People are happiest when both partners give and receive equally.

• Both partners share chores and emotional labor

• Unequal effort can lead to resentment and dissatisfaction

Investment model

• Commitment depends on satisfaction, investment, and quality of alternatives.

• A person stays in a long-term relationship because they’ve built a home and share memories

What makes relationships last?

• Attributions:

• Accommodation- Responding positively to a partner’s negative behavior instead of retaliating (ex. calming down instead of yelling back during a fight)

• Willingness to Sacrifice: Putting the partner’s needs above one’s own for the good of the relationship

• Derogation of alternative: Downplaying attractiveness of potential new partners to maintain commitment.

Passion Decay Belief

• Beliefs about whether passion can be rekindled as relationships evolve.

• Lower passion can predict lower commitment, UNLESS you believe that passion can be recovered

• Ex. believing passion fades = lower commitment; believing it can return = higher stability

• ex. couples therapy focuses on rekindling emotional intimacy

The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse

• Four toxic communication behaviors that predict relationship breakdown.

1) Criticism 2) Contempt 3) Defensiveness 4) Stonewalling

Social Influence

• How behavior, thoughts, or feelings change in response to real or imagined group pressure.

• Ex. you speak more politely when your boss is around

Conformity

Adjusting ones behavior or thinking to match the group’s standard or norm

Social Norms

Shared rules or expectations for how people should behave in a group or culture

Why do we conform?

• Normative social influence: we want to be liked (laughing at a joke you don’t find funny to fit in)

• Informational social influence: we want to be right (ex. following locals behavior when traveling abroad)

Asch Conformity Experiment 

• Participants asked to compare line lengths with a group of confederates who intentionally gave wrong answers.

• 75% conformed at least once; 35% of responses overall were conforming.

• Shows people often follow group norms even when they’re clearly wrong

In the Asch Conformity Experiment, why did participants conformed

Wanted to avoid standing out (normative) or assumed group was correct (informational).

When are we likely to conform?

• You feel incompetent/ insecure

• The majority has at least 3 people

• Group is unanimous

• Group is high-status/ attractive

• Your response is public

• In collectivistic (vs individualistic) cultural contexts: Collectivist cultures emphasize group harmony → higher conformity.

• Oxytocin: “bonding hormone” linked to social trust and cooperation, may increase conformity

Can conformity be used to change behavior for the better?

• Using accurate information about true group behavior to reduce risky actions.

• Showing that “most students drink less than 2 drinks a week”

• This is able to decrease binge drinking by correcting false perceptions of peer norms

Obedience

Following the commands of an authority figure even if you disagree.

• Military training relies on obedience for coordination but can also lead to blind compliance.

Milgram’s Obedience Experiment

• Participant (“teacher”) asked to give shocks to a “learner” (confederate) for wrong answers. Authority figure (experimenter) told them to continue.

• Many showed distress — sweating, trembling, stuttering — but continued anyway.

• - Authority perceived as legitimate
  - Conducted at prestigious institution
  - Victim depersonalized or distant
  - No role models for defiance

Stanford Prison Experiment

• To test how social roles and environment affect behavior, College students randomly assigned as “guards” or “prisoners.”

• Within days, guards became abusive and prisoners showed distress.

The situation and assigned social roles influenced participants’ actions more than personality traits. Guards began humiliating prisoners; study ended early. Illustrates “power of the situation” — environment can override morals.

Guards began humiliating prisoners; study ended early.

Illustrates “power of the situation” — environment can override morals.