Nutrition: Carbohydrates, Fats, and Proteins Overview

This set of flashcards covers essential vocabulary related to carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the chapters, facilitating understanding of key concepts on nutrition.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are essential plant-derived energy nutrients, forming one of the three macronutrients. They are the body's primary and most readily available energy source, particularly crucial for the proper functioning of nerve cells and the brain. Chemically, they are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Excellent dietary sources include fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.

Glucose

Glucose is recognized as the most abundant monosaccharide (simple sugar) and is universally produced by plants via photosynthesis. It serves as the body's principal and preferred energy source, especially critical for brain function, and provides vital energy for all cells throughout the body.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the fundamental biochemical process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of glucose. During this process, carbon dioxide and water are used to synthesize glucose, oxygen is released as a byproduct, and excess glucose is stored as starch. This establishes plants as the ultimate primary producers of carbohydrates that form the base of most food chains.

Carbohydrate Classification

Carbohydrates are broadly classified into two main groups based on their molecular structure: Simple Carbohydrates, which contain one or two sugar molecules, and Complex Carbohydrates, which are larger structures composed of many sugar molecules, including polysaccharides and fiber.

Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar molecule. They are the building blocks for more complex carbohydrates and are absorbed directly into the bloodstream without further digestion. Key examples include glucose (blood sugar), fructose (fruit sugar), galactose (part of milk sugar), and ribose (found in DNA/RNA).

Disaccharides

Disaccharides are simple carbohydrates formed when two monosaccharide molecules link together. They must be broken down into monosaccharides during digestion before absorption. Common examples include lactose (milk sugar, composed of glucose + galactose), maltose (malt sugar, composed of two glucose units), and sucrose (table sugar, composed of glucose + fructose).

Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of long chains of many glucose molecules. They include starch, which is the storage form of glucose in plants (amylose and amylopectin), and glycogen, which is the storage form of glucose in animals (primarily in the liver and muscles).

Fiber

Fiber refers to a diverse group of nondigestible carbohydrate compounds, primarily found in plant-based foods. It is categorized into dietary fiber (naturally occurring in plants) and functional fiber (nondigestible carbohydrates that have been isolated, extracted, or manufactured and then added to foods). The sum of both is total fiber, which is crucial for maintaining digestive health, promoting satiety, and regulating nutrient absorption.

Soluble Fiber

Soluble fiber is a type of dietary fiber that readily dissolves in water, forming a gel-like, viscous substance in the digestive tract. It is fermentable by beneficial bacteria in the large intestine. Rich sources include citrus fruits, berries, oats, barley, and beans. Its key health benefits include lowering blood cholesterol by binding to bile acids, slowing glucose absorption to stabilize blood sugar, thereby reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes.

Insoluble Fiber

Insoluble fiber is a type of dietary fiber that does not dissolve in water. It remains largely intact as it moves through the digestive tract, adding bulk to stool. It is abundantly found in whole grains (e.g., wheat bran), and the skins and seeds of many vegetables and fruits. Its primary functions include promoting regular bowel movements, preventing constipation, and reducing the risk of conditions like diverticulosis.

Carbohydrate Functions & Energy Value

Carbohydrates are indispensable primarily because they are the preferred and most efficient energy source for all body cells, fueling daily activities, exercise, and basic metabolic processes. Adequate carbohydrate intake ensures a 'protein-sparing' effect, preserving proteins for tissue building. Red blood cells rely exclusively on glucose for energy. Each gram of carbohydrate provides approximately 4 \text{ kcal} of energy (\text{Energy per g} = 4 \text{ kcal g}^{-1}).

Ketosis & Ketoacidosis

When carbohydrate intake is severely restricted or unavailable, the body shifts to breaking down fat for energy, leading to the production of ketone bodies (ketosis). While a mild state of ketosis can occur and may be utilized for energy, excessive and uncontrolled ketone production, particularly in individuals with conditions like type 1 diabetes, can lead to ketoacidosis. This is a dangerous metabolic state characterized by dangerously high blood acidity and can be life-threatening if not treated promptly.

Carbohydrate Digestion & Absorption Overview

Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth (salivary amylase). It is largely inhibited in the stomach (acid inactivation). The majority of digestion occurs in the small intestine (pancreatic amylase, mucosal enzymes break down to monosaccharides), which are then absorbed into the bloodstream. Monosaccharides travel to the liver, where they are converted to glucose, released for body energy, or stored as glycogen (glycogenesis). Undigested carbohydrates, like fiber, pass to the large intestine where they are fermented or excreted.

Insulin

Insulin is a potent anabolic hormone secreted by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets in response to elevated blood glucose levels (e.g., after a meal). Its primary function is to lower blood glucose by promoting the uptake of glucose into muscle, adipose, and other cells. Insulin also stimulates glycogenesis (glucose storage as glycogen) in the liver and muscles, inhibits glucose production by the liver (gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis), and promotes lipogenesis (fat synthesis and storage) in adipose tissue, thereby orchestrating the storage of excess energy.

Glucagon

Glucagon is a catabolic hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreatic islets, primarily in response to low blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia), such as during fasting or prolonged exercise. Its main role is to restore normal blood glucose concentrations. Glucagon achieves this by stimulating glycogenolysis (the breakdown of stored glycogen into glucose) in the liver and by promoting gluconeogenesis (the synthesis of new glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors, like amino acids and glycerol) also in the liver, thereby releasing glucose into the bloodstream.

Glycemic Index (GI)

The Glycemic Index (GI) is a numerical ranking system that measures how quickly and how much a specific carbohydrate-containing food raises blood glucose levels after consumption, relative to a fixed amount of a reference food (usually pure glucose or white bread). Foods with a low GI are digested and absorbed more slowly, resulting in a gradual rise and fall in blood glucose, minimizing sharp fluctuations.

Glycemic Load (GL)

The Glycemic Load (GL) provides a more comprehensive picture of a food's impact on blood glucose than the GI alone, as it accounts for both the quality (GI) and quantity of carbohydrates in a typical serving. It is calculated by multiplying the food's Glycemic Index by the grams of carbohydrate in a serving, then dividing by 100: \text{GL} = (\text{GI} \times \text{carbohydrate (g per serving)}) / 100. Meals with lower GL values are generally preferred for better blood glucose control, particularly for people managing diabetes, as they lead to smaller and slower rises in blood sugar.

Carbohydrate Intake Recommendations

Daily carbohydrate intake is guided by the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of 130 \text{ g/day} (to supply brain glucose) and the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) of 45\text{\textendash}65\% of total daily energy intake. Furthermore, added sugars should be limited to less than 25\% of total daily energy intake per day, with an emphasis on whole, fiber-rich foods.

Whole Grain Structure

A whole grain kernel is comprised of three distinct and essential parts: 1. The bran, the fibrous outer layer, rich in antioxidants, B vitamins, and dietary fiber; 2. The endosperm, the largest middle layer, which primarily contains starchy carbohydrates, protein, and small amounts of vitamins and minerals; and 3. The germ, the embryo of the seed, which is nutrient-dense, containing B vitamins, vitamin E, healthy fats, and antioxidants. Consuming all three parts provides maximum nutritional benefit.

Health Implications of Dietary Carbohydrates

High sugar intake carries several significant health implications, including dental caries, and is associated with an increased risk of heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and obesity. Conversely, adequate fiber intake confers numerous health benefits, such as reducing the risk of colon cancer, promoting bowel health, lowering blood cholesterol and glucose, aiding in weight management, and decreasing the risk of diverticulosis.

Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes Mellitus is a group of chronic metabolic diseases characterized by persistently high blood glucose (hyperglycemia) resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. The three main types are Type 1, Type 2, and Gestational diabetes. If left uncontrolled, chronic hyperglycemia can lead to devastating long-term complications, including damage to the eyes (retinopathy and blindness), kidneys (nephropathy), nerves (neuropathy), and significantly increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, and various infections.

Type 1 Diabetes

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease, meaning the body's immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. This results in an absolute deficiency of insulin, requiring lifelong insulin therapy. It is most frequently diagnosed in childhood or adolescence and, without proper management, can rapidly lead to severe hyperglycemia and a high risk of developing diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), a life-threatening complication characterized by high blood acidity.

Type 2 Diabetes

Type 2 diabetes is the most prevalent form of diabetes, representing 90\text{\textendash}95\% of all diagnosed cases. It is characterized by progressive insulin resistance, where body cells do not respond effectively to insulin, and/or a gradual decline in the pancreas's ability to produce sufficient insulin. While heredity plays a role, obesity and physical inactivity are common precipitating factors. This condition often develops through stages like impaired fasting glucose (IFG) and prediabetes, and if unmanaged, can lead to pancreatic beta cell failure over time.

Lipids (Fats)

Lipids, commonly known as fats, are a heterogeneous group of organic substances that are distinguishable by their hydrophobic nature, meaning they are insoluble in water. Despite this, they are vital macronutrients for numerous functions: including serving as a concentrated source of energy, forming essential components of cell membranes, insulating the body, protecting organs, and acting as precursors for hormones (e.g., steroid hormones) and fat-soluble vitamins.

Triglycerides

Triglycerides are the predominant form of fat found both in the diet (making up roughly 95\% of dietary fat) and stored in the body's adipose tissue. Each triglyceride molecule is formed by combining three fatty acid molecules with one glycerol molecule via ester bonds. Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains, while glycerol acts as a three-carbon alcohol backbone that holds the fatty acids together. They serve primarily as energy storage molecules and are transported in the blood by lipoproteins.

Phospholipids

Phospholipids are a unique class of lipids characterized by a glycerol backbone attached to two fatty acids and a phosphate group. The phosphate group makes the 'head' of the molecule hydrophilic (water-loving), while the fatty acid 'tails' are hydrophobic (water-fearing), giving phospholipids amphipathic properties. This dual nature allows them to form essential components of all cell membranes, creating a lipid bilayer. The body can synthesize phospholipids, making them generally non-essential in the diet.

Sterols (Cholesterol)

Sterols are a distinctive group of lipids characterized by a complex structure of four interconnected carbon rings. They are vital for various physiological functions, serving as essential components of cell membranes, where they contribute to fluidity and integrity, and acting as precursors for the synthesis of steroid hormones (like estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol), vitamin D, and bile acids. The body produces sufficient amounts of sterols, making them non-essential in the diet. Cholesterol is the most well-known and abundant sterol in the human body.

Saturated Fatty Acids

Saturated fatty acids are a type of fatty acid characterized by having only single bonds between their carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain, meaning each carbon is 'saturated' with hydrogen atoms. This linear structure allows them to pack tightly together, contributing to their physical property of being solid at room temperature. They are predominantly found in animal products (e.g., meat, dairy fats, lard) and some tropical oils (e.g., coconut oil, palm oil).

Monounsaturated Fatty Acids

Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) are a type of unsaturated fatty acid characterized by having exactly one double bond within their carbon chain, meaning they lack two hydrogen atoms in that specific location. This single double bond introduces a 'kink' in the molecular structure, preventing them from packing as tightly as saturated fats. Consequently, MUFAs are typically liquid at room temperature. Excellent sources include olive oil, canola oil, peanut oil, avocados, and most nuts.

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are a class of unsaturated fatty acids that contain two or more double bonds along their carbon chain, with each double bond accounting for the absence of two hydrogen atoms. These multiple double bonds introduce numerous kinks and bends, preventing tight packing and making PUFAs typically liquid at room temperature. PUFAs are vital, including the essential omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, and are found abundantly in plant oils (e.g., sunflower, corn, soybean, flaxseed oils) and fatty fish.

Trans Fatty Acids

Trans fatty acids are a type of unsaturated fatty acid, often formed during the industrial process of hydrogenation. Unlike naturally occurring cis fats, trans fats have hydrogen atoms on opposite sides of their double bonds, which results in a straighter, more rigid molecular shape, making them more solid at room temperature. They are primarily found in partially hydrogenated oils and are strongly associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

Essential Fatty Acids (Omega-3 & Omega-6)

Essential fatty acids are specific polyunsaturated fatty acids that are indispensable for human health but cannot be synthesized by the body in sufficient quantities, thus making their dietary intake mandatory. The two primary families are the omega-6 fatty acids (e.g., linoleic acid-LA, found in vegetable/nut oils) and omega-3 fatty acids (e.g., alpha-linolenic acid-ALA from plants, and eicosapentaenoic acid-EPA/docosahexaenoic acid-DHA from fish/fish oil). They are critical for cell membrane structure and as precursors for eicosanoids, hormone-like compounds that regulate physiological processes.

Functions of Fats

Fats (lipids) are vital macronutrients for numerous physiological functions:

• Energy Source: Providing a concentrated 9 \text{ kcal/g}, fats are a significant energy source, crucial during rest and prolonged exercise.
• Energy Storage: They are the primary form of long-term energy storage in adipose tissue.
• Vitamin Absorption & Transport: Essential for the absorption and transport of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K).
• Structural Components: Form integral parts of cell membranes and myelin sheaths around nerve cells.
• Protection & Insulation: Cushion vital organs against shock and provide insulation to regulate body temperature.
• Culinary Aspects: Enhancing food flavor and texture, contributing to satiety.

Fat Digestion & Absorption Overview

Fat digestion primarily occurs in the small intestine. Bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, emulsifies large fat globules. Pancreatic lipase then breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides. These, along with bile salts, form micelles which transport them to intestinal mucosal cells for absorption. Inside these cells, they are reformed into triglycerides and packaged into chylomicrons, which are then transported via the lymphatic system into the bloodstream. Medium and short-chain fatty acids may be absorbed directly into the bloodstream.

AMDR for Fats & Quality Recommendations

The Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) for fat recommends that 20\text{\textendash}35\% of an adult's total daily energy intake should be derived from fats. Within this guideline, the type of fat consumed is more critical than the total quantity. Prioritize unsaturated fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated), increase omega-3 fatty acids, and significantly limit saturated and strictly avoid trans fats due to their detrimental effects on cardiovascular health.

Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)

Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) is a comprehensive term that encompasses any dysfunction or disease of the heart or blood vessels. Its common manifestations include Coronary Heart Disease (CHD), also known as Coronary Artery Disease (CAD), and stroke. Underlying conditions such as atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries) and hypertension (high blood pressure) are major contributing factors to the development and progression of CVD.

Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by the gradual accumulation of lipid deposits (fats and cholesterol) and fibrous scar tissue (plaque) within the inner walls of arteries. This process, often referred to as 'hardening of the arteries,' leads to the narrowing and stiffening of arterial walls, impairing blood flow, increasing blood pressure, and significantly augmenting the workload on the heart, increasing risk for heart attacks and strokes.

Hypertension

Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is a major chronic disease that indicates a significantly increased risk for heart disease, stroke, and kidney disease. It results from consistently elevated force of blood against artery walls. While it can be influenced by hereditary factors, it is also strongly induced or exacerbated by lifestyle factors such as high sodium intake, physical inactivity, obesity, and excessive alcohol consumption.

Modifiable CVD Risk Factors

Modifiable risk factors for cardiovascular disease are conditions or behaviors that individuals can actively change or control to reduce their risk. Key factors identified by the American Heart Association include: improving diet quality, increasing physical activity, quitting tobacco use, maintaining healthy sleep patterns, achieving and managing a healthy weight, controlling cholesterol levels, managing blood sugar levels, and maintaining healthy blood pressure.

Lipoproteins & Healthy Cholesterol Levels

Lipoproteins are complex particles that transport hydrophobic fats and cholesterol through the blood. Key types include LDL (low-density lipoprotein, 'bad' cholesterol) and HDL (high-density lipoprotein, 'good' cholesterol). For optimal cardiovascular health, recommended blood lipid levels include: Total Cholesterol:

Proteins

Proteins are large, complex macromolecules fundamental to all life, found richly within cells and tissues. They are polymers composed of chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Proteins are critical for virtually every bodily function: providing structural components (e.g., muscle, collagen), acting as enzymes and hormones, maintaining fluid and pH balance, transporting nutrients and oxygen, and supporting immune defense. Distinctively, proteins contain nitrogen atoms not found in carbohydrates or fats.

Amino Acids (Essential & Nonessential)

Amino acids are the organic building blocks that link together to form proteins. There are 20 common amino acids: Essential Amino Acids (9 of them) are those the body cannot synthesize and must be obtained from food (e.g., Histidine, Leucine). Nonessential Amino Acids are those the body can synthesize from other compounds (e.g., Alanine, Glycine), so dietary intake isn't strictly necessary.

Protein Synthesis

Protein synthesis is the complex biological process where cells create new proteins. It predominantly involves two main stages: 1. Transcription: The genetic information encoded in a gene within DNA is copied into a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule in the nucleus. 2. Translation: The mRNA molecule then carries this genetic message to a ribosome in the cytoplasm, where the sequence of codons on the mRNA is 'translated' into a specific sequence of amino acids, assembled into a polypeptide chain with the help of transfer RNA (tRNA).

Protein Structure (4 Levels)

Proteins exhibit four hierarchical levels of structural organization, each critical for defining their final shape and biological function:

1. Primary Structure: The unique, linear sequence of amino acids.

2. Secondary Structure: Localized, regular folding patterns (alpha-helices or beta-sheets).

3. Tertiary Structure: The overall, unique three-dimensional shape of a single polypeptide chain.

4. Quaternary Structure: The arrangement and interaction of multiple, distinct polypeptide chains (subunits).

Protein Denaturation

Protein denaturation is a process in which a protein loses its specific three-dimensional (secondary, tertiary, and quaternary) structure, often due to the disruption of its non-covalent bonds. This structural change is typically induced by external factors such as exposure to significant heat, extreme pH levels (acids or bases), heavy metals, or certain alcohols. Denaturation almost always results in the irreversible loss of the protein's biological activity and function.

Complete & Incomplete Proteins

Complete Proteins are dietary protein sources that contain all nine essential amino acids in proportions sufficient to support optimal growth and repair (e.g., animal products, soy). Incomplete Proteins are sources that do not contain all essential amino acids in sufficient quantities, thus considered 'low-quality' (e.g., most plant-based foods).

Complementary Proteins

Complementary proteins refer to the strategy of combining two or more incomplete protein sources that, when consumed together in the same meal or over the course of a day, effectively provide all the essential amino acids in amounts sufficient to meet the body's needs, thereby forming a 'complete protein.' This approach, known as mutual supplementation, is particularly important for individuals following vegetarian or vegan diets (e.g., pairing rice with beans, or hummus with pita bread).

Key Functions of Proteins

Proteins are multifaceted molecules essential for virtually every function of life:

• Cell Growth, Repair, & Maintenance: Fundamental for building and repairing tissues.
• Enzymes & Hormones: Act as biological catalysts (enzymes) and signaling molecules (hormones).
• Fluid & Electrolyte Balance: Help regulate fluid distribution and ion transport across membranes.
• pH Balance: Act as buffers to maintain the body's acid-base balance.
• Immunity: Form antibodies that defend against pathogens.
• Energy Source: Can provide energy (4 \text{ kcal/g}) when carbohydrate and fat stores are insufficient.
• Transport & Storage: Carry substances (e.g., oxygen, iron) and store nutrients.

Protein Digestion & Absorption Overview

Protein digestion begins in the stomach, where hydrochloric acid denatures proteins and pepsin starts breaking them into polypeptides. In the small intestine, pancreatic proteases (e.g., trypsin, chymotrypsin) further break polypeptides into shorter peptides and single amino acids. Enzymes on the brush border then cleave remaining peptides. Finally, amino acids, dipeptides, and tripeptides are absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to the liver for distribution and utilization.

Nitrogen Balance

Nitrogen balance is a metabolic indicator that compares the amount of nitrogen consumed (primarily from dietary protein) with the amount of nitrogen excreted by the body. Positive nitrogen balance indicates net protein synthesis (e.g., growth, pregnancy). Negative nitrogen balance indicates net protein breakdown (e.g., starvation, illness). Balanced nitrogen suggests intake approximately equals excretion, typical for healthy adults.

Protein Intake Recommendations

For healthy adults, the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for protein is 0.8 \text{ grams of protein per kilogram of current body weight per day}. The Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) for protein indicates that 10\text{\textendash}35\% of total daily energy intake should come from protein. These guidelines ensure adequate protein for physiological functions and minimize disease risk.

Vegetarian Diet Types

Vegetarian diets vary in their exclusion of animal products:

• Flexitarian: Primarily plant-based, but occasionally includes some animal products.
• Pescovegetarian: Excludes meat and poultry, but includes fish, seafood, eggs, and dairy.
• Lacto-Ovovegetarian: Excludes meat, poultry, and fish, but includes dairy (lacto-) and eggs (ovo-).
• Vegan: Excludes all animal products, including meat, poultry, fish, dairy, eggs, and sometimes honey.

Nutritional Considerations for Vegans

Individuals following a strict vegan diet must carefully plan their food intake to avoid potential deficiencies in crucial nutrients commonly found in animal products. Key nutrients of concern include vitamin B12 (often requires supplementation), iron (less bioavailable in plants), zinc, calcium, vitamin D, iodine, and ensuring adequate intake of all essential amino acids through a varied consumption of complementary plant proteins.

Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM)

Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM) is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition resulting from an inadequate intake of protein and/or energy (calories) over an extended period. It leads to a range of clinical signs, including profound tissue wasting, impaired growth, and a severely compromised immune system. PEM encompasses severe forms such as Marasmus and Kwashiorkor, primarily affecting children in developing countries.

Marasmus

Marasmus is a severe form of Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM) characterized by a prolonged and extreme deficiency of both protein and total energy (calories), as well as other essential nutrients. This leads to profound tissue wasting, specifically loss of both muscle and fat. Clinically, individuals with marasmus appear emaciated or 'skin and bones,' exhibiting severe stunted growth and intellectual impairment. It's often referred to as 'wasting away.'

Kwashiorkor

Kwashiorkor is a form of Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM) that typically occurs when there is a relatively adequate calorie intake but a severe and chronic deficiency in protein consumption. Characteristic signs include muscle wasting, stunted growth, and particularly, pronounced edema (swelling) evident in the abdomen and limbs, giving a false impression of sufficient weight. This fluid retention is due to a lack of blood proteins to maintain osmotic pressure. It often affects children who have been weaned from breast milk onto low-protein, high-carbohydrate diets.

Macronutrients & Micronutrients

Nutrients are categorized by the quantity required by the body:

• Macronutrients: Required in relatively large amounts (grams) for energy, structural components, and body functions. This includes carbohydrates, fats (lipids), proteins, and water.
• Micronutrients: Required in much smaller amounts (milligrams or micrograms) and do not provide energy directly, but are critical for metabolic processes, enzyme activity, and growth. This category includes vitamins and minerals.

Vitamins (Fat-Soluble & Water-Soluble)

Vitamins are organic compounds essential for normal metabolism and body functions. They are categorized by solubility:

• Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K): Dissolve in fat, stored in body, toxicity possible with excess intake, slow onset of deficiency.

• Water-soluble vitamins (B vitamins, C): Dissolve in water, minimal body storage, rare toxicity (excess excreted), quick onset of deficiency, requiring regular intake.

Minerals (Major & Trace)

Minerals are inorganic essential nutrients, categorized by quantity:

• Major Minerals: Required in larger amounts (>100 \text{ mg/day}) for fluid balance, bone health, muscle contraction (e.g., calcium, sodium, potassium).

• Trace Minerals: Required in lesser amounts (<100 \text{ mg/day}) but critical for enzyme activity, immune response (e.g., iron, zinc, iodine).
  Both are vital for numerous physiological functions.

Micronutrient Absorption

The absorption of micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) from the digestive tract into the bloodstream