ch 6 ; learning

What is learning?

Learning is a systematic, relatively permanent change in behaviour that results from cognitive experience.

What is behaviourism?

Behaviourism is a systematic method or approach to understanding changes in behaviour that focuses solely on observable behaviours, discounting the importance of mental activity (thinking, wishing, hoping).

What is non-associative learning?

Non-associative learning involves procedures when only a single event or stimulus is presented without any reward or punishment.

What is habituation?

Habituation is a decrease in the response to a repeated or prolonged stimulus over time.

What is sensitization?

Sensitization is the increase in the response to a repeated or prolonged stimulus.

What is imprinting?

Imprinting is a form of non-associate learning that takes place during a limited time, often within hours or days of birth/hatching, and creates an enduring behaviour that is often directed toward a specific individual.

What is associative learning?

Associative learning occurs when an organism makes a connection, or association, between two stimuli or events.

What is conditioning?

Conditioning is the process of learning these associations.

What is observational learning?

Observational learning is a type of social learning that occurs when one person or animal observes another’s behaviour.

What is classical conditioning?

Classical conditioning is a learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus, resulting in a learned response.

What is classical conditioning?

A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

What is an example of automatic stimulus-response connections?

Reflexes, such as salivation in response to food, nausea in response to spoiled food, shivering in response to cold, etc.

What is an unconditioned stimulus (US)?

A stimulus that produces a response without prior learning.

What is an unconditioned response (UR)?

An unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the US.

What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?

A previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditional stimulus.

What is a conditioned response (CR)?

The learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after CS-US pairings.

What is acquisition?

The phase in learning where CS is paired with US and a learned response (CR) is acquired.

What does contiguity mean in classical conditioning?

The CS and US are presented close together in time.

What does contingency mean in classical conditioning?

The CS must serve as a reliable indicator that the US is on its way.

What is contingency in classical conditioning?

The CS must serve as a reliable indicator that the US is on its way.

What is generalization in classical conditioning?

The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response.

What is discrimination in classical conditioning?

The process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others.

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

The weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented.

What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?

The process by which an extinguished conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning.

What is renewal in classical conditioning?

The recovery of the conditioned response when the organism is placed in a novel context.

What is counterconditioning in classical conditioning?

A procedure that involves changing the conditioning of an undesired response to a stimulus into a desired response.

What is aversive conditioning?

A form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus.

What are food cues in classical conditioning?

Conditioned stimuli that can elicit a conditioned response in individuals with eating disorders.

What are conditioned stimuli in the context of food cues?

are the sight, taste, smell, and texture of food.

What is the placebo effect?

The placebo effect is when a substance or a procedure with no biologically known ingredients influences a person.

What is immunosuppression?

a decrease in the production of antibodies, which can lower a person’s ability to fight disease.

What is taste aversion learning?

Taste aversion learning is a special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea.

What is embedded marketing?

Embedded marketing is the exploitation or classical conditioning principles for advertisement.

What is drug habituation?

Drug habituation occurs when someone develops a tolerance for a psychoactive drug and needs an increasing dose of the drug to get the same effect.

What is respondent behaviour?

Respondent behaviour is behaviour that occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus.

What is operant conditioning/instrumental conditioning?

Operant conditioning/instrumental conditioning is a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behaviour change the probability that the behaviour will occur again.

What is the law of effect?

The law of effect states that behaviours followed by pleasant outcomes are strengthened and behaviours followed by unpleasant outcomes are weakened.

What is the Law of Effect?

Behaviours followed by pleasant outcomes are strengthened and behaviours followed by unpleasant outcomes are weakened.

What is shaping?

Rewarding successive approximations of desired behaviours.

What is reinforcement?

The process by which a stimulus or event (reinforcer) following a particular behaviour increases the probability that the behaviour will happen again.

What is positive reinforcement?

When the frequency of behaviour increases because it is followed by a desirable stimulus.

What is negative reinforcement?

When the frequency of behaviour increases because it is followed by the removal of something undesirable.

What is avoidance learning?

When the organism learns that by making a particular response, a negative stimulus can be escaped or avoided.

What is learned helplessness?

When an organism has learned that it has no control over negative outcomes, even when it is given a chance it makes no attempt to change the outcome.

What is a primary reinforcer?

Innately satisfying

What is a secondary reinforcer?

Acquires its positive value through an organism’s experience

What are token economies?

A type of secondary reinforcement where tokens or points are earned for desirable behaviours and can be exchanged for primary reinforcers.

What is a secondary reinforcer?

A learned or conditioned reinforcer that acquires its positive value through an organism's experience.

What is a token economy?

A system where behaviors are rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for desired rewards, using secondary reinforcers.

What is operant generalization?

Performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation.

What is operant discrimination?

Responding differently to stimuli that signal whether a behavior will or will not be reinforced.

What is operant extinction?

When a behavior is no longer reinforced and decreases in frequency.

What is continuous reinforcement?

When a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs, and extinction takes place quickly when it stops.

What is partial reinforcement?

When a reinforcer follows a behavior only a portion of the time, and is more resistant to extinction.

What are schedules of reinforcement?

Specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced.

What are ratio schedules?

Schedules that involve the number of behaviors that must be performed prior to reward.

What are interval schedules?

Schedules that refer to the amount of time that must pass before a behavior can be rewarded.

What is a fixed-ratio schedule?

A schedule that provides reinforcement after a set number of behaviors have been performed.

What is a fixed-ratio schedule?

A schedule that provides reinforcement after a set number of behaviors.

What is a variable-ratio schedule?

A schedule where behaviors are rewarded on an unpredictable basis, producing high, steady rates of behavior that are more resistant to extinction than other schedules.

What is a fixed-interval schedule?

A schedule that reinforces the first appropriate behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed.

What is a variable-interval schedule?

A timetable in which a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed.

What is punishment?

A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur in the future.

What is positive punishment?

When a behavior decreases when followed by the presentation of a stimulus.

What is negative punishment?

When a behavior decreases when a stimulus is removed.

What is applied behavior analysis?

The use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior.

What is time-out?

A form of negative punishment where the individual is removed from the reinforcing environment for a period of time.

What is behaviour modification?

The use of operant conditioning principles to change human behaviour.

What is time-out?

A form of negative punishment where a child is removed from a positive reinforcer (like toys).

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Occurs upon seeing a model attain a reward for an activity, which increases the chances that will repeat the behaviour.

What is vicarious punishment?

Occurs upon seeing a model being punished, which makes the observer less likely to repeat the behaviour.

What is latent (implicit) learning?

Unreinforced learning that isn’t immediately reflected in behaviour.

What is insight learning?

A form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into, or understanding of, a problem’s solution.

What is instinctive drift?

The tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behaviour that interferes with previous learning.

What is mindset?

Used to describe the way our beliefs about ability dictate what goals we set for ourselves, what we think we can learn, and ultimately what we do learn.

What is fixed mindset?

The belief that one’s qualities are carved in stone and cannot change.

What is growth mindset?

The belief that one’s abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work.

What is a fixed mindset?

Fixed mindset is the belief that one’s qualities are carved in stone and cannot change.

What is a growth mindset?

Growth mindset is the belief that one’s qualities can change and improve through effort.

What is the difference between a fixed mindset and a growth mindset?

Fixed mindset is the belief that one’s qualities are carved in stone and cannot change, while growth mindset is the belief that one’s qualities can change and improve through effort.

How can one's mindset affect their ability to learn?

One's mindset can affect their ability to learn by influencing what they believe they can learn and ultimately what they do learn.

What is the importance of having a growth mindset?

Having a growth mindset is important because it allows individuals to believe that they can improve and develop their abilities through effort and hard work.