psycology - research methods

Iv is

What you change (independent variable)

Dv is

What you measure (dependant variable)

Extraneous variables

Unwanted variables that can affect results of experiments such as temperature or time of day

Alternate hypothesis

Predicting there will be a significant difference/ correlation

Null hypothesis

Predicting there will be no significant difference/correlation

Hypothesis writing frame

There will be no/ a significant difference/correlation in the participants that——— compared to the participants that———-

Repeated measures design

Same people doing both conditions

Strength and weakness of repeated measures design

Strength: no participant variables e.g. age gender IQ

Weakness: order effects

Independent measures design

Different people do each condition and compare results

Strength and weakness of independent measures design

Strength: no order effects

Weakness: participant variables

What is counter balancing and how can it reduce order effects

Counter balancing is when you split order effects across conditions. For example if you have 60 participants and two condition (a+b) 30 participants will do condition a first and 30 participants will do condition b first

Target population

a group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest

Sample

A group of people who take part in the investigation

Generalisation

A representation of a larger group

Representative

The extent to which findings, samples, and conclusions from a investigation can be applied to a population

Random sampling and how it can be dome

When everyone has a equal chance to be selected

Put names into a hat and randomly pick the amount of participants needed

Opportunity sampling and how it can be done

Using people who are there at the time

Using people who are in the area e.g. a school to test on children

Self selected/volunteer sampling and how it can be done

People volunteer to take part

Posting a online survey and see who wants to respond

Strength and weakness of random sampling

Strength: removes bias, quick, easy, cheap, anyone can be selected

Weakness: wont achieve representative sample, people may not want to take part, could miss minority’s

Strength and weaknesses of opportunity sampling

Strength: removes bias, cheap, easy, quick

Weakness: wont achieve representative sample, ps could refuse to participate, could miss minority’s

Strengths and weaknesses of self selected sampling

Strength: easy, quick, cheap, people will be willing and motivated to take part

Weakness: biased, wont achieve representative sample, could miss minority’s

Ethical guidelines (hint DRIPP)

D. Deception

R. Right to withdraw

I. Informed consent

P. protection from harm

P. Privacy

How to deal with the ethical issue informed consent

Can assume participants consent by conducting a presumptive consent rather than getting consent from the participants themselves. A similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable.

How to deal with the ethical issue deception

Doing a debrief informs the participants of the true aims of the study after the event they should make sure they understand the aim

How to deal with the ethical issue protection from harm

The right to withdraw during the experiment and and offer counselling or medical help afterwards. can withdraw data during debrief

How to deal with the ethical issue confidentiality

All data should remain anonymous use numbers instead of names and no pictures or drawings that could be identified but participants may consent to recording and data being shared

Laboratory experiment

Experiment directly manipulates the IV in a controlled environment

Field experiment

Research and manipulates the IV but he’s done in a natural environment such as a school extraneous variables are not controlled

Natural experiment

Experiments were researchers do not manipulate the IV. It is predetermined such as girls versus boys and it can be done in a natural environment or a lab

Strengths and weakness of lab experiment

Strength: High control of extra news variable because it’s in a controlled environment tends to be more ethical as you have to have informed consent the experiment can be replicated therefore it is more reliable

Weakness: findings lack ecological validity as it cannot be generalised real world as it is carried out in an artificial environment. There is more chance of demand characteristics affecting the findings because participants know that they’re being tested on.

Strength and weakness of field experiment

Strength: Hyatt ecological validity it’s done in a real world scenario less chance of demand characteristics participants don’t know they’re being tested on

Weakness: Low control of extra use variable it is done in an uncontrolled environment less ethical participants do not have to give informed consent experiment difficult to replicate it’s less reliable

Strength and weakness of natural experiment

Strength: more ethical, nothing is being manipulated

Weakness: can be difficult to match up participants as the IV is already in place

Closed question

Questions that have answers such as boxes and rating scales

Quantitative data and what kind of questions they come from

Come from closed questions

Numerical data

Opened questions

Questions that do not have certain answers people can write as little as as much as they want

Qualitative data and the questions they come from

Come from open questions

Data that is in words

Social desirability

Participants may lie to make their answers look better

Structured interview

Questions are predetermined everybody is interviewed is asked the same questions in the same order

Unstructured interview

Do not have set questions the interviewer ask questions based on the interviewees is previous responses. It acts like a conversation. The interviewer asks the interviewees to expand on answers.

Two strengths on interviews

People can go in debt from what they’re thinking and feeling

It’s face-to-face interviewer may build a relationship with the interviewee so they will feel more comfortable to share what they are feeling

Two weaknesses on interviews

Social desirability people might like to make themselves feel better

Participants may feel shy and struggled to talk about feelings

What is overt and covert observation?

An overt observation is when people know they’re being observed

A covert observation is when people don’t know they are being obsevered

What is a participant and non-participant observation?

Participant is when the researcher gets involved

non-participant is when the researcher remains a distance away

Controlled and naturalistic observation

Controlled is conducted in a controlled or lab environment

Naturalistic is conducted in a natural environment

Strength and weakness of overt observation

Strength: Participants consent less ethical issues

Weakness: Participant behave differently because they know they are being watched. This is called observe effect makes results less valid.

Strength and weakness of covert observation

Strength: participants don’t pay differently because they don’t know they’re being watched no observer effects mate results more valid

Weakness: participants cannot give consent there are more ethical issues

Strength and weakness of participant observations

Strength: Researcher won’t miss details of an activity or lack insight as they were involved

Weakness: When observer is involved in the group and then they may become too involved and stop being objective

Strength and weakness of non-participant observations

Strength: observe isn’t too involved in the group and won’t stop being objective

Weakness: Researcher May miss details of an activity or lack inside as they are not involved

Strength and weakness of naturalistic observations

Strength: situations are not artificial so they behave naturally results have ecological validity

Weakness: There’s lack of control over extraneous variables difficult to establish cause and effect

Strength and weakness of controlled observations

Strength: There is control over extra news variables makes it easy to establish cause-and-effect

Weakness: Situations can be artificial people do not behave natural naturally results lack ecological validity

Case study

In depth study that gathers a lot of detail about one person or small groups many research methods has aim but no hypothesis typically over period of time

What kind of data the case studies gather?

Qualitative

Two strengths of a case study

Provide rich in depth qualitative data high in validity as they go into a lot of detail details and get closer to the truth

Possible to study individuals or groups that could not be manipulated more ethical

Two weaknesses of case studies

Based on small samples results and findings may not be representative of large populations is harder to generalise

Case studies are end up studies so psychologist may find hard to remain objective affecting the results

Correlations

Relationships between two co-variables

Positive correlation

When one variable increases so does the other

Negative correlation

When one variable increases the other decreases

No correlation zero correlation

There is no relationship between the two variables

Two strengths of correlations

Allow psychologist to carry out investigations on things that cannot be experimented on e.g. would be unethical to manipulate peoples hormone levels in experiments to see if it gives them depression however it is possible to simply measure peoples depression levels and then correlate these to existing hormone levels

Relations of high levels of ecological validity compared to experiments as nothing is set up or manipulated

Two weaknesses of correlations

Correlation is informers about relationship between variables does not tell us what causes the other No call and effect

Correlations use quantitative data can lack construct of validity e.g. Although it might be reliable to measure hormone levels, some psychologist would argue it’s not valid to measure something complex like depression in terms of numbers

Quantitative data

Data involving numbers

Qualitative data

Data involving words

Primary data + strength

Data that has been collected by the researchers themselves. A strength of this is the psychologist can trust the data and knows it has not been misinterpreted by somebody else.

Secondary data+ Strength

Research or user data collected by somebody else they may use statistics or a piece of research carried out by the government strength of this is that it saves time and money

Mean average

Adding up all of the numbers and divide by a total numbers

Median average

Finding the middle score after placing them in numerical order if there is an odd number at the median is the middle number there’s an even number the median is the mean of the two central numbers

Mode average

The value that appears most frequently in the set of data

Range

Difference between lowest and highest values calculate by subtracting lowest score from highest score in the data set

Ecological validity

How much the research can be generalised a real world scenarios

Construct validity

Ensuring the method of measurement matches the construct you want to measure

Population validity

How the research can be generalised to the whole population

Define gender as a type of bias

Occurs when research theories are practices unfairly favourite one gender over another leading to missing to misrepresentation or generalisation of findings across genderS

Define cultural as a type of Bias

Happens when research our theories unfairly assumed that behaviours, norms and, findings from one culture apply universally to all cultures

Define age as a type of bias

occurs when certain age groups are over represented underrepresented or stereotyped in research or theories

Define experimenter as a type of bias

When a researcher influences the outcome of a study consciously or unconsciously

Define observer as a type of bias

Occurs when the observers expectations or interpretations affect how they record or interpret participants behaviours

Define questioning as a type of bias

Arises when the wording, tone, or structure of questions influences how the participants respond leading to skewed data