AP Biology Chapters 1-7 Review

what are the 5 themes of biology?

organization, information, energy + matter, interactions, evolution.

difference btw inductive and deductive reasoning?

inductive: specific observation →general conclusion

deductive: general observation →specific conclusion

out of 92 natural elements, how many are essential?

20-25%

what is the molecular fomula?

formula of compound showing the number of atoms of each element (ie. C4H10)

what is molecular stucture?

showing how atoms in molecules are bonded together

how are compounds different than molecules?

compounds have to have at least 2 dif elements

what are isomers?

organic molecules that have identical formulas but different arrangement of atoms

what are orbitals?

space where electrons are found; electron shells contain electrons at particular energy levels distributed among orbitals

how many electrons can each orbital occupy?

2

what is the atomic number?

number of protons; determines atoms identity

what is atomic mass?

average of mass number (protons + neutrons) for all isotopes

whats an isotope?

atoms of same element with different amounts of neutrons

what determines molecular shape?

the position of the molecules orbitals (ie. atoms with s and p orbitals make tetrahedrons)

rate of reaction is affected by ________ of __________.

concentration, reactants

what 4 properties make water special?

cohesion of water molecules, moderation if temperature by water, floating of ice on liquid water, water being te solvent of life.

describe cohesion of water molecules.

water molecules are linked by multiple hydrogen bonds making water more structured, this results in cohesion which is the cause of high surface tension and adhesion which can counter gravity.

describe moderation of temperature by water.

water moderates air temperature by absorbing heat from air that is warmer and releasing stored heat to air that is cooler.

what is specific heat and how does it help water?

specific heat is the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1g of substance to change 1 degree C. water’s ability to stabilize temperature is due to its relatively high specific heat.

why does heat cause such a small change to water?

heat must be absorbed to break hydrogen bonds and released when they form. so when heat is absorbed by water most of it is used to break hydrogen bonds before the molecules can move faster.

what is evaporative cooling?

the process in which the surface of an object becomes cooler during evaporation, contributes to the stability of lakes and ponds.

describe floating of ice on liquid water.

water is less dense as a solid than as a liquid because it expands when it solidifies, so ice is less dense than liquid water causing it to float

described how water is the solvent of life.

water is a versatile solvent due to its polarity

what is an acid?

an acid is a substance that increases the hydrogen ion (h+) concentration of a solution by donating hydrogen ions. numbers 1-7 on pH scale

what is a base?

a substance that reduces the hydrogen ion (h+) concentration of a solution by accepting hydrogen ions or dissociating to form hydroxide ions (OH-) which combine with hydrogen ions to form water. number 7-14 on pH scale

what is the pH of a solution?

the negative logarithm (base 10) of the hydrogen ion concentration: pH= -log\[H+)

what is a buffer?

a substance that maintains changes in concentration of H+ and OH- in a solution.

what 4 ways can carbon skeletons vary?

length, branching, double bond position, presence of rings

whats a structural isomer?

isomers that differ in the covalent arrangement of atoms

whats a cis-trans ismomer?

isomers that differ in the spatial arragement of their atoms due to the inflexibilty of double bonds

describe a cis isomer and trans isomer

cis- 2 atom/atom groups on same side

trans- 2 atom/atom groups on oposite sides

what are enantiomers?

isomers that are mirror images of each other in shape due to presence of asymetric carbon, usually only 1 side is effective

what are the 7 most important functional groups?

hyrdoxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, and methyl groups

what is a dehydration reaction?

a reaction in which 2 monomers are covalently bonded to each other with the loss of water molecule to form a polymer.

what is hydrolysis?

the dissembling of polymer by the addition of a water molecule.

monosaccharides generally have a molecular fomula of what unit?

CH2O

what are some trademarks of sugars?

carbonyl group and multiple hydroxyl groups

what is the difference btw aldose and ketose sugars?

aldose- cabonyl group at end of the skeleton (glucose)

ketose- carbonyl group within skeleton (fructose)

what is a glycosydic linkage?

a covalent bond btw 2 monosaccharides by dehydration reaction

what are the 2 functions of polysaccharides?

storage and structure

what are 2 storage polysaccharides?

starch- a polymer of glucose stored by plants that can be withdrawn with hydrolysis to be used a energy

glycogen- a polymer of glucose used by animals as short term energy

what are 2 structural polysaccharides?

cellulose- used in the walls of cell plants, the unbrached structure helps to impart strength

chitin- used by anthropods to build exoskeletons and by fungi to replace cellulose

what is a fat?

a glycerol molecule joined to 3 fatty acids; they re hydrophobic and main function is energy storage

what are fatty acids?

long carbon skeletons with 16-18 hydrocarbons connected to a carboxyl group

what makes fats hydrophobic?

the nonpolar hydrogen-carbon bonds in the fatty acids

whats the difference btw unsaturated and saturated fats?

saturated fats- dont have double bonds so more saturated with hydrogen resulting in them being solid

unsaturated fats- contain 1 or more double bonds so less hydrgogen resulting in them being liquid

what is a phospholipid?

a glycerol connected to 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group; major part of membranes

in a phospholipid the hydrocarbon tails are __________ and the head is ___________.

hydrophobic, hydrophillic

what are steroids?

lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings (ie. cholesterol)

what are amino acids?

an organic molecule with both an amino group and carboxyl group; protein monomer

how is a polypeptide formed?

when 2 amino acids are positioned with the carboxyl group one to the amino group of another, a dehydration reaction can join them to form a polypeptide

describe the levels of structure in polypeptides

primary structure- linear chain of amino acids

secondary structure- regions stabilized by hydrogen bonds btw atoms of the polypeptide backbone (coils and folds)

tertiary structure- 3-D shape stabilized by interactions btw side chains (overall shape)

quarternary structure- association of 2 or more polypeptides

what can injure/destroy proteins?

change in pH, change in salt concentration, change in temperature can cause denaturation

what do nucleic acids do?

store, transmit, and help express hereditary information

what make nucleotides?

a 5-carbon sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group

in the sugar phosphate backbone one end has a phosphate to a _*’* carbon and one end has a hydroxyl group to a _‘ carbon

5, 3

what is genomics?

the system study of whole sets of genes and interactions as well as comparisons btw species

what are bioinformatics?

the use of computer software that can handle large data sets

what is a light microscope?

a microscope in which visible light is passed through the specimen and the through glass lenses which refract the light to magnify it

what are the 3 principles of microscopy?

to enhance magnification, resolution, and contrast

what is an electron microscope?

a microscope that focuses a beam of electrons through specimen and onto surface

explain the 2 types of electron microscopes.

transmission electron microscope- used to study internal structure of cells; specimen is stained with heavy metal to enhance electron density

scanning electron microscope- used for detailed study of topography of specimen; electron beam excites electrons and electrons are scanned and displayed as 3-D

explain the structure of the nuclear envelope

a double membrane that is perforated by pore structures; a protein structure called pore complex regulates entry and exit; the nuclear envelope is lined with nuclear lamina, protein filaments which maintain shape

what are ribosomes?

cellular components that carry out protein synthesis; they are suspended in the cytosol (free) or attached to the ER or nuclear envelope (bound)

what organelles are part of the endomembrane system?

ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles

what is the endoplasmic reticulum?

a bio synthetic factory that consists of a network of membranous tubules and sacks called cisternae

describe the rough and smooth ER

the smooth ER lacks ribosomes and does the synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, detoxification of drugs and poison, and storage of calcium ions

the rough Er contains ribosomes and makes secretory proteins and is a membrane factory (phospholipids)

explain the structure of the Golgi apparatus

the golgi consistes of membranous sacs called cisternae, the cis face of the cisternae is near the ER and receives products, the trans face is on the other side ships products to vesicles

what are lysosomes?

digestive compartments; membranes of hydrolytic enzymes that eukaryotic cells use to digest (hydrolyze) macromolecules

what is phagocytosis?

when a lysosome containing active hydrolytic enzymes fuses with a food vacuole and the enzymes digest the food particles, which become nutrients for the cell

what is authophagy?

when a vesicle with a damaged organelle fuses with a lysosome; the organelle is digested and its components recycled

what are some types of vacuoles?

contractile vacuole- used by unicellular protists to pump water

central vacuole- absorbs water and enlarges in plants to minimize growth of cytoplasm

explain the endosymbiont theory

it states that an early ancestor of eukaryotic cells (host cell) engulfed and oxygen using non-photosynthetic prokaryotic cell. the engulfed cell formed a relationship with the host cell and they eventually merged to a eukaryotic cell with a mitochondrion

what supports the endosymbiont theory?

* there are 2 membranes surrounding mitochondrion and choloplast
* ribosomes and DNA in inner membranes
* they are autonomous

explain the structure of mitochondria

* enclosed by 2 lipid bilayers embedded with proteins
* the mitochondiral matrix (enclosed by inner membrane) contians enzymes, DNA, and ribosomes
* the cristae (fold in inner membrane) gives large surface area to enhance productivity

what is the structure of chloroplasts?

intermembrane; thylakoids inside make stacks called granum; outside of thylakois is the stroma which contains DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes

what are peroxisomes?

they are specialized metabolic compartments bounded by membrane; they contain enzymes that remove hyrdogne and transfer it to oxygen creating H202 (hydrogen peroxide) to be used for cellular respiration

what is the role of the cytoskeleton?

to give mechanical support to the cell and maintain its shape

what is the purpose of microtubules?

to shape and support cells and re tracks for motor proteins; they also guide vesicales in cell distribution

what is the structure of microtubules?

hollow rods contructed from globular proteins called tubulins

what are tubulim dimers?

consist of 2 polypeptides called a tubulim and b tubulim, they grow by adding more tubulim dimmer and have a plus end that adds or releases tubulims at a higher rate

many protists are propelled through water by ______ or ___________

cillia, flagella

what are microfilaments (action filaments)

thin solid rods made from actin (a globular protein) that bear tension and support cell shape to make cell gel like; they also make the protein myosin for muscle cell contraction

what are intermediate filaments?

found in vertebrates as a permanent cell shape holder (they bear tension); they are very sturdy and surround nucleus

what is the structure of the plant cell wall?

made from microfibrils made of cellulose with a mix of proteins and strong pores

what is the extracellular matrix?

a part of animal cells that regulates cell behavior made up of glycoproteins and carb containing molecules (collagen and fibroconectin)

what is plasmodeta?

specialized junctions that connect plant cell walls

what are 3 types of animal cell junction?

tight junctions- tightly pressed, bounded by proteins

desmones- long sheets, muscle cells

gap junctions- communications, tissue, embryo

explain the fluidity of membranes

membranes are held together by weak interactions and materials can shift making fluid

what are integral proteins?

penetrate the hydrophobic interior of lipid bilayer

what are peripheral proteins?

not embedded in lipid bilayer

explain some functions of proteins

transport- channel of shuttle

enzymatic activity- enzyme where reactants bind

signal transduction- signaling molecule can relay message to cell

cell cell recognition- ID tags

intercellular joining- hook together

attachment to cytoskeleton of ECM- maintain cell shape

what is selective permeability?

some substances cross easier than other

nonpolar molecules are _________ so they can dissolve across bilayer

hydrophobic

the ______ __interior of membranes prevents passage of__ _______ molecules

hydrophobic, polar

how can hydrophilic (polar) subanstaces pass through lipid bilayer?

by avoiding contact with lipid bilayer by using transport proteins

how do channel proteins function?

by having a hydrophillic passageway

how do carrier proteins function?

by holding passages and changing shapes to shuttle across membrane

what is diffusion?

the movement of particles of any substance so that they spread out into the available space

in the absence of other forces, a substance will diffuse from ___ __concentrated to__ ___ __concentrated;__ _____ its concentration gradient

more, less, down