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what is functionalism
Functionalism is a structuralist theory which means that society is clearly structured with institutions like the family, the media, and the education system, all of which influence our behaviour
Functionalists believe that this structure is good for individuals as it means that we have a shared consensus in society.
We agree on a basic set of norms and values, and so a functionalist would see youth subcultures as part of this shared consensus. When norms and values are shared, society can be harmonious.
which sociologists believe there is just one youth subculture and which believe there are several
Some functionalist sociologists like Durkheim, Parsons, and Eisenstadt believe that there is one single youth culture that emerged in the 1950s, providing different functions for all young people.
Other functionalist sociologists such as A. Cohen, and Cloward and Ohlin, along with other sociological theories like Marxism, feminism and postmodernism believe that there are several different youth subcultures that all operate for a variety of reasons.
Youth culture is functional in helping find an identity
what does parsons argue about this
Parsons argues that the social roles associated with different age groups are vital for the smooth functioning of society.
Youth culture is a part of that system and has a key function. In industrialised societies, there is a wide gulf between adulthood and childhood so there needs to be a transition stage where youth are segregated, learning to become adult as they move away from childhood (See Roberts gradual and lengthy transitions).
Functionalists see there being “a youth culture” as “solving the problems of transition”.
Some of those problems stem from the fact that young people have lower levels of income and status, less experience of, or exposure to the ‘adult’ world of work, family responsibilities, and duties and rights associated with adult citizenship.
Functionalists argue that youth are fairly allocated this role based on their limited skills and experience within meritocratic society. By starting at the bottom, young persons will eventually mature into a more rounded adult and good, efficient workers or employees, taxpayers and husbands or wives that will have a positive impact society.
what did Eisenstadt argue
finding identity
Eisenstadt says “the development of personal identity, psychological autonomy and self- regulation, … is the main feature of youth”. Parsons talks about youth being a stage of transition, but Eisenstadt focuses on how having a specifically rebellious style and behaviour helps youths to find their own sense of identity.
Youth culture allows young people to experiment safely with their identity before fully becoming adult, helping them to overcome issues.
He sees groups such as the Scouts and the YMCA as useful for supervising this risk taking and helping to avoid deviancy. According to Eisenstadt, being given the space to form your own identity will make you a stable adult that will then benefit the future society and economy and share the same values.
Even if that subculture is deviant and ‘tests the boundaries’ of what is and is not acceptable to the shared norms and values of a society, it is better to get youth deviance “out of your system” when young, rather than become part of a serious criminal gang later in life.
what do parsons and eisenstadt agree on about youth subculture
However, both Parsons and to a lesser extent Eisenstadt assume that there is a single set of values that all young people have as part of this transition stage.
what do postemerdinsts argue about youth subculture
Postmodernists (topic 5) have suggested that there are multiple sets of values among youth in contemporary society.
what do marxists argue about youth subcultures
Marxists (topic 4A) would argue that there are clear social class differences between subcultures.
what do feminists argue for youth suncultures
Feminists (topic 4B) have shown that the reasons for forming subcultures are often dependent on gender.
functionalists argue Youth culture is functional in helping to avoid anomie, explain this
The transition between childhood and adulthood can also lead to feelings of confusion, or a breakdown of norms and values, for some young people.
Puberty, changes in relationships and having to deal with new roles and status can all add pressure, affecting our norms and values. This means that young people may experience this breakdown in a heightened way.
Functionalists argue then that youth culture has a function in helping young people to avoid this problem, maintaining a level of social order through their peers and youth culture.
This then functions to stabilise their future adult selves as well as their future roles and status as contributors to society and the economy.
For example, taking part in sports’ clubs, the Scout movement or the modern Duke of Edinburgh Award, or any other social, leisureor recreation-related youth activity helps overcome or ‘channel’ this anomie with meaningful and purposeful activity, and prepares young persons for adult life (job, responsibilities, family etc) by imbuing a sense of discipline, self-regulation and acquiring transferrable skills for the future
what was durkheims idea of confusion anomolie
Durkheim called this state of confusion anomie, referring to the breakdown of a sense of norms and values.
It is a breakdown in social control and can be used in two senses.
Firstly, the breakdown in society’s social order, for example when a country experiences a revolution or civil war. In Syria (2015) we can perhaps see ‘anomie’ - it is unclear who is in charge, what the norms of society are, and how individuals can / should lead their daily lives.
The second use Durkheim has for ‘anomie’ is in the personal sense. He refers to this in relation to his work on suicide, arguing that individuals may be driven to suicide due to a sense of anomie in their personal life.
“Anomie is associated with irritation, self–disgust, normlessness”. Individuals who lack self-control, purpose or regulation are more likely to experience problems.
problem with the functionalist studies of durkheim and parsons
They also overemphasise conformity and consensus. For example, Durkheim is unable to explain why youth subcultures tend to be male dominated – do women not experience the same sense of anomie?
Parsons is also criticised for his methodology. He took all his findings from a limited sample of middle-class males in their own communities in the USA, meaning that his findings may lack generalisability
what would a functionalist argue about gaining status in youth through crime.
A functionalist would argue that gaining status is important for society to function. Gaining status through deviance or even crime is not ideal but it still allows a young person to achieve and feel a sense of connection, which ultimately then helps them to function in later life in society.
what do cloward and ohlin why youth may join criminal subcultures and what do they name the three types of criminal subcultures
Cloward and Ohlin suggest that youths may join criminal subcultures to make a living if the conventional means are blocked.
They argue that there are three types of subcultures
criminal (where crimes are committed and the gang is organised in a clear hierarchy),
conflict (gangs organised by the young people which usually focus on protecting territory and low-level crimes)
retreatist (gangs that cannot succeed through legitimate methods and so often end up dropping out and using drugs).
what did decker and van winkler name as the pulls and pushes of joining a gang for the youth
Decker and Van Winkler argue that the reasons for joining gangs or criminal YSC consist of both ‘pulls’ and ‘pushes’.
The ‘pulls’ are about gaining status, excitement, thrills, camaraderie with friends (‘the gang’), and money-making opportunities for working class youths.
The ‘pushes’ may come from social, economic and cultural disadvantages, deprivation and/or a challenging home life.
Feelings of exclusion and marginalisation may push youths from the lower classes towards the status of gang membership (‘you’re one of us’) and for having an identity in being part of a gang.
For youths from dysfunctional and/or poorer families, the clear hierarchy and close relationships of a gang can provide the sense of safety and support that is missing at home, or at college.
what did alexander find in studying gangs of asian descent
Alexander, studying the labelling of some groups of Asian descent, saw how being part of a gang could provide a functional defence mechanism against racism in society. Jobs and opportunities could be given, and status gained within the gang that would otherwise be hard to gain outside of the gang. Further, being a member of a gang can also give members a sense of belonging and identity, protection from outsiders and/or from an environment that was perceived as hostile, if not outright racist
what is the feminist argugument against gangs just being formed for social protection and a defence mechanism against racism from society
However, the relatively low number of female gangs and deviant subcultures would counter this argument. Using the same logic of gangs being a functional defence against oppression, Feminists would question why more females do not join gangs or deviant subcultures as a defence against patriarchy? Most gangs are male dominated and this complicates the matter.
what is the new right and what are their views on youth subcultures
The New Right are a politically motivated group who are connected to Conservative political ideas, and Conservative political practice in government in the UK, the USA and elsewhere.
New Rightists broadly agree with functionalists that we live – supposedly - in a meritocratic society where each and every individual will, or can be rewarded for high levels of effort, self-discipline, resilience and hard work, but they also see youth subcultures in a much more negative light in terms of their effects on society
what did charleston say about the underclass,
mental health of youth
Charlesworth argued that the poor share the same types of beliefs and values as everyone else, and that it is unemployment, poverty and debt that have a negative effect on self-esteem and health, which is then transmitted down from parents.
His study found that many poorer young people suffered from depression, anxiety and frustration from a feeling of being unable to succeed.
Although some of these young people did then join youth subcultures that are criminal, most did not.
what does murray say about the underclass.
Murray suggests that there is a distinct lower-class subculture below the ‘traditional’ working-class, which he calls the underclass, defined by experiencing long-term unemployment and benefits’ dependency often of several generations. Murray sees the underclass as generally lacking in moral values, discipline, self-regulation, and to a lack of commitment to marriage and traditional family life as they are socialised wrongly in that a culture of not working for pay has taken root in some households
what do new right theorists say about the underclass
New Right theorists therefore see the underclass as the main cause of crime over the past thirty years or so in inner city areas and on council estates all over the UK.
In recent years, they also point to county lines because the lessening of authority (in schools for example, or at home) has allowed some young persons to slip into crime, and then serious crime.
For New Right thinkers, youth subcultures that involve the underclass are almost always deviant
what do Murray and Herrnstein argue for the statement that Deviant youth subcultures emerge because of biological and social factors,
nature v nurture debate
bell curve, intelligence
in their controversial book “The Bell Curve” (1994) suggest that getting involved a subculture is linked to biological factors like personality traits and intelligence.
Some people are born biologically predisposed to certain personality traits, such as aggressiveness, impulsiveness, and argumentativeness. These traits are more likely to then lead to crime.
For example, an impulsive person may take risks without thinking through the consequences, stealing without thinking of the punishment. An aggressive person is more likely to resort to violence and be prosecuted for assault or murder. Th
what are criticisms of the new right perspective
However, the New Right are widely criticised by other sociologists. Interactionists claim that the New Right label all individuals and groups as less intelligent and more susceptible to deviancy and criminality.
Labelling whole groups is seen as just a way of both controlling people at the bottom of social system and justifying the position and status of those at the top.
Another argument against the New Right is that some members of some youth subcultural groups are highly educated and from middle class backgrounds (see hippies or Korem’s contribution above) and therefore do not fit the New Right model either.
what is welfare dependancy
Welfare dependency refers to people who are either not working or have very low pay, meaning they cannot live without help from the government, either through income support or housing benefit allowance. The welfare state itself also refers to free education and the NHS
what did davis marsland say in argument to the welfare state
david Marsland argues that the Welfare State is responsible for the emergence of this underclass because welfare dependency has undermined people’s sense of commitment and obligation to support each other.
In other words, people know they will be taken care of by the government if they become unemployed or homeless so why bother to take any responsibility, to be disciplined and to work for your own upkeep?
Marsland and other New Right contributors describe people belonging to the underclass as “workshy, lazy, entitled, choosing to take state benefits
As one remedy, a New Right, i.e. Conservative government should cut benefits to encourage self-reliance, responsibility, harsher punishment for deviant and criminal behaviour – “actions have consequences” - and self-discipline, with a “zero tolerance” approach to low-level deviant and criminal behaviour such as a shop lifting or vandalism.
what would marxists such as owen jones ay in argument to david marsland
Marxists such as Owen Jones would describe this as the demonization of the working classes through scapegoating them as ‘scroungers’ and ‘free-loaders’ and that rich, privately educated politicians and divisive media campaigns stereotype and stigmatise the lower classes to justify their own privileged positions
Homogeneous Youth Culture
A unified culture where young people share common norms, values, and lifestyles.
Youth Subcultures
Distinct groups within youth that adopt alternative norms, styles, and values, often differing from mainstream culture.
Problems of Transition
Challenges faced by individuals during major life changes, such as moving from adolescence to adulthood.
Identity
A sense of self shaped by personal, social, and cultural factors.
Risk-Taking
Engaging in behaviors with potential for harm or loss, often to seek excitement or peer approval.
Anomie
A state of normlessness or disconnection from societal norms, leading to deviant behavior.
Underclass
A marginalized group at the bottom of the socioeconomic hierarchy, often excluded from mainstream society.
Poor Socialisation
Inadequate transmission of societal norms and values, leading to difficulties in functioning within society.
The Bell Curve
A book by Herrnstein and Murray suggesting a link between intelligence (IQ) and social outcomes, often controversially.
Low IQ
Below-average intelligence as measured by standardized tests, potentially impacting learning and decision-making.
Personality Traits
Enduring characteristics that shape individual behavior, such as openness, conscientiousness, or extroversion.
Defence Mechanism
Psychological strategies to cope with stress or conflict, such as denial or repression.
Welfare Dependency
Relying on government aid as the primary source of income, potentially perpetuating poverty.
outline two new right explanations of youth subcultures 12
Ka - Marsland and other New Right contributors describe people belonging to the underclass as “workshy, lazy, entitled, choosing to take state benefits.
Ka- Murray and Herrnstein, controversial book “The Bell Curve” (1994) suggest that getting involved a subculture is linked to biological factors like personality traits and intelligence.
Explain and briefly evaluate the view that young women are less likely to join deviant subcultures than young men 16
Safia Mirza (1992) also found girls to be less rebellious. She studied young black women in two comprehensive schools in South London and found that they did not rebel
Bedroom culture McRobbie and Garber. ‘cult of femininity’.
Cieslik and Pollock found a very secretive online female subculture which was focussed on ‘Pro-Ana’ websites
Assess functionalist explanations of youth subculture 24
Functionalism is a structuralist theory which means that society is clearly structured with institutions like the family, the media, and the education system, all of which influence our behaviour. Functionalists would argue that youths join subcultures for their own individual benefit and indirectly for the benefit of society
Ka- alexander defence system
Ca - Safia Mirza (1992) also found girls to be less rebellious. She studied young black women in two comprehensive schools in South London and found that they did not rebel
Ka- Cloward and Ohlin suggest that youths may join criminal subcultures to make a living if the conventional means are blocked. They argue that there are three types of subcultures; Functionalists believe that a meritocracy will reward people later in life with higher incomes once they have worked hard and gained the right skills
criminal (where crimes are committed and the gang is organised in a clear hierarchy),
conflict (gangs organised by the young people which usually focus on protecting territory and low-level crimes) and
retreatist (gangs that cannot succeed through legitimate methods and so often end up dropping out and using drugs).
Ca – Willis marxist semi class consicous, resist ruling class oppression, resistance to meritocratic system
Ka- Albert Cohen (see above) showed how working-class boys failing at school suffered status frustration and so they inverted the values system and started to reward each other for poor behaviour and failure – they gave status to the worst behaved because they judged that to be ‘cool’. Youth subcultures have their own hierarchies where youth can get status because they have different norms and values to mainstream society.
CA- hebdige Marxist, punks, political
