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negative feedback loop
returning system to a steady stable point
ex: glucose, insulin, stress response (cortisol)
positive feedback loop
reinforced deviations from stable points
ex: thermals, childbirth(increased uterine strength)
homeotherm
body temp is constant
poikilotherms
temperature changes with the outer/environment temperature
temperature conformity: only surviving in narrow environment ranges
endotherm
internal temperature generation
(rate increase, temperature decrease)
ectotherm
external generation of temperature
(rate increase, temperature increase)
acute physiological changes
immediate change in response to environmental stimuli
ex: shivering from the cold
chronic physiological changes
accumulation change, reversible without stimuli
periodic physiological changes
changes in physiology of individual animals
ex: immune system, inflammation
plasma cell membrane
regulate movement
sense & respond to environment
compartmentalize with selective permeability
plasma membrane structure
phospholipid bilayer
hydrophobic(non-polar) heads & hydrophilic (polar) tails
fluidity determined by saturation of hydrocarbons and phospholipid tails
fluid mosaic model: integral and peripheral proteins
epithelia
sheets of cells covering body surface, organ, or cavity
microvilli projections to increase surface area
compartmentalizes different parts of the body & permeable to some molecules
primary protein structure
string of amino acids with strong bonds
“backbone”
covalent bonds = shared
noncovalent = electrostatic of hydrogen bond
22 total encoding possibilities
secondary protein
local folding patterns of an acid chain
hydrogen bonds of folding strings
helix of pleated sheets
tertiary protein
total 3D protein structure including side chains off of an acidic backbone
quaternary protein structure
not included in all proteins, but has interactions between multiple protein molecules
2+ cell “subunits”
ubiquitin-proteasome system
main destruction mechanism
ubiquitin tags protein
proteasome destroys
proteostasis
regulation of balanced/functioning proteome
maintains equilibrium within cell bodies
composes proteins & destroys misfolded/damaged ones
denaturation
3D structure warped by temperatures & toxins
sometimes irriversible
molecular chaperones
repair damage to proteins
heat shock protiens (HSP’s) in tissues to respond to other cellular stressors
channels, transporters, enzymes, receptors, structural proteins
enzymes
catalyze cellular reactions
regulates speed of rxn depending on tissue
binds to substrates and creates products
receptors
bind to ligands
channel binds to receptors to open channels for ions through cell membranes
genomics
the study of genomes of organisms
genome
full set of genetic material
genetics
study of dpecific genes
modify over evolutionary time by natural selection and sometimes randomly
genotype
underlying genetic content
phenotype
physically expressed genes
change by accumulation of base change and duplication of genes or genomes
natural selection
observed by ratio of:
synonymous - changes in sequence production of the same amino acid
non-synonymous - change amino acid sequence
gene expression
DNA→transcription→MRNA→translation→protein
polymerase
enzyme→promotoer→enhancer→transcription factor→intracellular receptors
promoter
regulatory region upstream transcription start
enhancer
regulatory region affecting gene transcriptiont
trnscription factor
proteins bind to regulatory regionof DNA to influence transcriptionintra
intracellular receptors
inside cells used to trigger transcription
ligand binds to receptor , entire complex is trnascibed for expression
genome
full set of genetic material that does not change
proteome
profile expressed proteins
different subset of genes ecpressed in different tissues
phenotype plasticity
ability of an animal with given genome to express different phenotypes
ex:crayfish, spadfoot toads
polyphenic development
genetically identical individuals taking 2+ body forms
aka “seasonal polyphenism”
determined by plasticity in an environment
epigenetics
major in determining proximate mechanisms
modify DNA without altering genome sequence
DNA methylation
exist until rewritten by another stimuli
histone modification
DNA methylation
methyl groups attach to DNA, influencing transcription
predictive adaptive response
cues early life modifying the organisms phenotype adaptively for a specific environment
maternal physiology/behavior
directly related to maternal care
exposure to toxins
early exposure influences disease later in life
epigenetics are potential mechanisms for this
ex: zebrafish
transgenerational epigenetics
through maternal effects or cellularly during meiosis of sperm&eggs
diffusion
movement of things towards equilibrium, from high to low concentrations