Building the New Nation (1777–1800): Government, Identity, and Expansion

Articles of Confederation

The first governing framework of the United States; a “league of friendship” among sovereign states, ratified in 1781, that intentionally created a weak central government.

Confederation Congress

The national governing body under the Articles of Confederation; a one-house legislature meant to coordinate shared needs like diplomacy and war, not to directly govern citizens’ day-to-day lives.

One vote per state

A rule under the Articles of Confederation giving each state a single vote in Congress regardless of population, designed to protect smaller states.

Nine of thirteen rule

Under the Articles, the requirement that nine of the thirteen states approve most important laws, making national action difficult.

Unanimous consent (Articles amendments)

The rule that changing (amending) the Articles of Confederation required agreement from all states, creating major gridlock.

Land Ordinance of 1785

A policy under the Articles that organized the surveying and sale of western lands in an orderly, grid-like system.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

A major success under the Articles that created a process for western territories to become states, established equal status for new states, and banned slavery in the Northwest Territory.

Shays’ Rebellion (1786–1787)

An uprising of debt-burdened Massachusetts farmers protesting economic hardship, taxes, and debt collection; it alarmed leaders and highlighted the national government’s weakness under the Articles.

No power to levy taxes (Articles)

A key weakness of the Articles: Congress could request money from states but could not tax directly, making it hard to pay war debts or fund basic operations.

No power to regulate trade (Articles)

A major limitation under the Articles: Congress could not regulate interstate or international trade, encouraging states to impose tariffs on one another and weakening national economic coordination.

Constitutional Convention (1787)

The Philadelphia meeting originally called to revise the Articles of Confederation; delegates instead produced a new framework, the U.S. Constitution.

Federalism

The constitutional system that shares power between the national government and state governments rather than placing all authority at one level.

Separation of powers

The Constitution’s division of national authority among three branches—legislative (make laws), executive (enforce laws), and judicial (interpret laws)—to reduce the risk of tyranny.

Checks and balances

Constitutional mechanisms that allow each branch of government to limit the others, preventing any one branch from dominating.

Virginia Plan

A proposal at the Constitutional Convention favoring representation based on population, generally supported by larger states.

Great (Connecticut) Compromise

The agreement creating a bicameral Congress with a House of Representatives based on population and a Senate with equal representation for each state.

Three-Fifths Compromise

The constitutional compromise counting three-fifths of enslaved people for purposes of representation and taxation, embedding slavery into the nation’s political structure.

Commerce Compromise

The convention agreement allowing Congress to regulate interstate and international trade and impose tariffs, while restricting taxes on exports.

Federalists

Supporters of ratifying the Constitution who argued a stronger national government was necessary to preserve the Union and manage the economy and security.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents (or skeptics) of ratifying the Constitution who feared the new national government would overpower states and threaten individual liberties.

Federalist Papers

Essays (notably by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay) written to support ratification by explaining the logic of the Constitution and arguing that a large republic could help protect liberty.

Bill of Rights (1791)

The first ten amendments to the Constitution; added to reassure skeptics by explicitly protecting individual liberties and clarifying limits on national power.

Republicanism

An early U.S. political ideal that legitimate government rests on consent of the governed and should serve the public good, with citizens expected to support the republic.

Republican Motherhood

The idea that women had an important civic role by raising and educating virtuous citizens; it increased women’s cultural importance but did not grant full political equality (such as voting rights).

Whiskey Rebellion (1794)

An uprising against a federal excise tax on whiskey, especially among western farmers; it demonstrated that under the Constitution the federal government could enforce laws and maintain order.