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What is learning?
Learning is the relatively permanent change in behavior based on experience.
What is classical conditioning?
A method of learning that creates new associations between neutral stimuli and reflex-causing stimuli.
What is operant conditioning?
A method of learning that alters the frequency of a behavior by manipulating its consequences through reinforcement or punishment.
What does cognitive learning involve?
High-level learning that involves thinking, anticipating, and other complex mental processes.
What is the law of effect?
The idea that responses leading to positive effects are repeated, while responses leading to negative effects are not.
What is a Skinner box?
A laboratory apparatus used to study operant conditioning in animals.
What is reinforcement?
A stimulus that increases the likelihood of a specific behavior occurring.
What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement presents a pleasant stimulus after a desired behavior, while negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus.
What is punishment in operant conditioning?
The use of a negative stimulus or withdrawal of a positive stimulus to suppress undesired behavior.
What is observational learning?
A form of learning that occurs by watching the behaviors of others.
What is the definition of a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
A stimulus that produces a response because it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
What is spontaneous recovery?
The reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction.
What is latent learning?
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and remains unexpressed until reinforcement is provided.
What is learned helplessness?
The learned inability to overcome obstacles or avoid punishment.
What is the concept of a cognitive map?
A mental representation of an environment or concept that facilitates understanding.
What is the Bobo doll experiment?
A study by Albert Bandura demonstrating that aggression is learned by observing and modeling others.
What is the role of the amygdala in emotional learning?
The amygdala processes emotions and is critical for emotional learning and memory.
What does the term 'operant' refer to?
A behavior that has some effect on the environment.
What is escape conditioning?
Conditioning that reduces or removes the unpleasantness of something that already exists.
What is the process of shaping in operant conditioning?
The gradual molding of behavior to obtain a final desired response by reinforcing successive approximations.
What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers?
Primary reinforcers are intrinsically pleasant; secondary reinforcers are conditioned through association with primary reinforcers.
What is 'token reinforcement'?
A secondary reinforcer that is tangible, such as money or reward stars.
What is cognitive decay?
The natural loss of memories over time.
What are the stages of Piaget's cognitive development?
Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, and Formal Operational stages.
What does the term 'egocentrism' mean in cognitive development?
A self-centered perspective that arises from failing to understand that others see the world differently.
What is moral development according to Kohlberg?
Moral reasoning occurs in three stages: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional.
What is the significance of the concept of 'zone of proximal development (ZPD)'?
It identifies skills children can perform only with the assistance of a more knowledgeable person.
What are the key characteristics of secure attachment?
A child feels safe in the presence of the caregiver and is distressed when they leave, but is soothed upon their return.
What is the difference between proactive and retroactive interference?
Proactive interference occurs when old information disrupts retrieval of new information; retroactive interference occurs when new information disrupts retrieval of old information.
What is the role of the amygdala in memory?
It plays a significant role in processing emotions and forming emotional memories.
What does the term 'developmental milestones' refer to?
Significant points in a child's development that mark progress in various abilities.
What is the role of teratogens in prenatal development?
Teratogens are substances that can cause harm or damage to the developing fetus.
What is fluid intelligence?
The ability to solve new tasks for which there is no prior knowledge.
What does 'emotional intelligence' refer to?
The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and utilize emotions effectively.
What is the Flynn effect?
The ongoing increase in average IQ scores over time.
What is the significance of the method of loci?
A mnemonic technique that aids memory by associating items with specific locations.
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