biology 1-2 milesdown

nucleoid region

DNA region in prokaryotes

nucleolus

makes ribosomes in nucleus; no membrane

peroxisome

collect and break down materials in cell

rough ER

accept mRNA to make proteins

smooth ER

detoxification of harmful substances and make lipids

golgi

modify and distribute proteins

nucleus, mitochondria, ER, golgi, lysosomes, peroxisomes, vacuoles, nuclear envelope, chloroplasts

organelles only found in eukaryotes

COPII: anterograde (forward). COPI: retrograde (back to ER from golgi)

coat protein type and direction

centrioles

organize mitotic spindle, which is made of microtubules

lysosomes

demolition and recycling center; made by golgi; single membrane

plasmids

carry DNA not necessary for survival; only in prokaryotes. 

bacilli

rod-shaped bacteria

cocci

sphere-shaped bacteria

spirilla

spiral-shaped bacteria

mitochondria vs cell membrane

ETC location in eukaryote vs prokaryote

80= 60+40 vs 70= 50+30

size of ribosomes in eukaryote vs prokaryote

mitosis vs binary fission

reproduction method in eukaryote vs prokaryote

virulence factor

pathogen to help bacteria infect a host cell; found in plasmids

episomes

type of plasmid that integrates into the genome of a host cell

prions

infectious proteins that trigger misfolding. turn a-helices—>B-sheet, so then hydrophobic interactions are promoted, leading to insoluble aggregates to misfold another protein.  found in eukaryotes

viroids

infectious RNA molecules/pathogens causing disease in plants

actin

type of microfilament maintaining cell shape, motility, muscle contraction, cytokinesis

tubulin

microtubule; helps in cilia/flagella movement, intracellular transport, mitosis

desmin, lamin, vimentin, and keratin protein type and function

types of intermediate filaments; provide structural and mechanical support and strength for the cell

parenchyma tissue

can be composed of epithelial tissue; makes up functional parts of an organ

simple tissue

one layer

stratified tissue

tissue type that has multiple layers

pseudostratified tissue

one layer but looks like multiple

cuboidal tissue

cube shaped

columnar tissue

long and narrow

squamous tissue

flat, scale-like tissue

epithelial tissue

type of tissue that lines organs; protective barriers to facilitate absorption, secretion, sensation

connective tissue

found in bones, cartilage, tendons, blood

stroma as the supportive tissue of an organ

composed primarily of connective tissue; provides structural integrity, nutrient delivery, and waste removal

transformation

uptake of DNA from environment (lysed cells; plasmid uptake in lab)

conjugation

direct transfer of DNA via conjugation bridge (sex pilus) in bacteria. donor must have F plasmid—>recipient becomes F+.

transduction

virus (bacteriophage) accidentally transfers bacterial DNA from one bacteria to another instead of its viral DNA

transposons

DNA sequences that can move within or between genomes in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. non-coding but can affect genes/mutations

capsid

protein coat that encloses viral genome; made of capsomeres

envelope

lipid membrane surrounding some viruses; derived from host cell membrane; contrains viral glycoproteins

viral genome

genetic material of a virus; can be DNA or RNA, single or double stranded

positive-sense RNA

single stranded RNA that can be directly translated by host ribosomes

negative-sense virus RNA

ssRNA that must be converted to complementary strand (+) by RNA replicase before translation

retrovirus

RNA virus that uses reverse transcriptase to synthesize DNA, which integrates into host genome (HIV)

head

where viral DNA or RNA is located on a virus

collar

on a virus connects head to sheath

sheath

on a virus contracts to inject viral genome into host

base plate

on a virus; anchors phage to bacterial surface

tail fibers

on a virus; recognize and bind to specific bacterial receptors

lytic cycle

virus replicates rapidly, produces new virions, and lyses (bursts) the host cell

lysogenic cycle

viral genome integrates into host DNA as a provirus/prophage, remains dormant, and can later activate into lytic cycle under stress

CDKs (cyclin-dependent kinases)

binds with cyclin to form an active complex

cyclin + CDK complex

phosphorylates Rb protein—>Rb-P

phosphorylated Rb

changes shape and releases transcription factor E2F

free E2F

activates genes needed for DNA replication —> cell cycle progresses into S phase. activates transcription of S phase genes

positive growth signals to promote cell division at the G1/S checkpoint

activate CDKs

negative growth signals that halt cell division (TGF-β)

inhibit CDK activity extracellularly & indirectly —increase expression of CDK inhibitors

CDK inhibitors (p21, p27)

block CDK from phosphorylating Rb

Rb staying unphosphorylated

holds onto E2F

without free E2F

DNA replication genes stay off—>cell cycle halts

SRY gene

in Y chromosome that changes the development of ovaries into testes

bulbourethral (cowper’s) glands

secretes viscous fluid to clean out acidic urine in urethra before ejaculation

seminal vesicles, prostate gland

produces fructose-rich, alkaline fluid to nourish sperm and help it survive in the acidic vaginal environment

seminiferous tubules

site of spermatogenesis (in testes)

epididymis

maturation and storage of sperm location

vas deferens

transports sperm during ejaculation

ejaculatory duct

where sperm mixes with seminal fluid

ovarian cycle phases

follicular phase, ovulation, and luteal phase

follicular phase

FSH stimulates follicle growth; estrogen rises

ovulation

LH surge, peak estrogen, release of mature egg

luteal phase

corpus luteum forms (ruptured follicle), secretes progesterone to maintain endometrial lining for potential implantation, decrease in LH and FSH

uterine cycle phases

menses, proliferative phase, secretory phase

menses

shedding of endometrial lining, low estrogen and progesterone

proliferative phase

estrogen rebuilds endometrium, increase in estrogen

secretory phase

stage where progesterone stabilizes and thickens lining. high levels of progesterone and moderate estrogen

FSH in males and females

f: stimulates follicle growth (containing oocyte) - source of estrogen before ovulation

m: triggers spermatogenesis, stimulates sertoli cells (in seminiferous tubules)

LH in males and females

f: triggers ovulation

m: causes interstitial cells to make testosterone

estrogen

hormone that builds endometrium, triggers LH surge

progesterone

maintains endometrium for implantation

ploidy

the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a cell

telophase 1 in female gametogenesis

specific stage of oogenesis that produces one large secondary oocyte and one small polar body

peritoneal sac

space between ovary and fallopian tube

gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

released by the hypothalamus and stimulates anterior pituitary gland to release FSH and LH