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Flashcards of key vocabulary and concepts from the lecture notes on brain and behavior.
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Nervous System
Consists of central and peripheral divisions, incorporating motor nerves (CNS outputs) and sensory nerves (CNS inputs).
Peripheral Nervous System
Divides into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system, both of which utilize cranial and spinal nerves.
Autonomic Nervous System
Divided into the sympathetic (action), parasympathetic (relaxation), and enteric (independent gastrointestinal) branches.
Central Nervous System
Consists of the brain (cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem) and spinal cord.
Cerebrum
Divided into left and right hemispheres, containing the cerebral cortex and subcortical structures.
Frontal Lobe
Executive functions
Parietal Lobe
Spatial cognition.
Temporal Lobe
Learning, memory, and auditory processing.
Occipital Lobe
Visual processing.
Precentral Gyrus
Important for motor control; found in the frontal lobe.
Postcentral Gyrus
Important for mediating sensory information; found in the parietal lobe.
Brainstem Regions
Involved in less conscious processing, including life-sustaining functions.
Cerebellum
Coordinating voluntary movements, balance, and posture.
Subcortical Structures
Basal ganglia and the limbic system.
Neurons
Primary information processors and transmitters in the nervous system.
Soma
Cell body.
Dendrites
Input zone.
Axon Hillock
Integration zone.
Axon
Conduction zone.
Axon Terminals
Output zone.
Neurons
Communicate via neurotransmitters released across synapses.
Anterograde Transport
Moves materials towards axon terminals.
Retrograde Transport
Moves materials towards the cell body.
Glial Cells
Support neuronal function by providing physical, nutritional, and functional support.
Types of Glial Cells
Oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, astrocytes, and microglia.
Oligodendrocytes and Schwann Cells
Responsible for myelinating axons to enhance the speed of electrical impulses.
Neural Communication
Electrical signals of action potentials and chemical signals of neurotransmitters.
Resting Membrane Potential
State of readiness with the neuron more negative inside compared to outside.
Action Potentials
Occur at the integration zone and are propagated along axons.
Postsynaptic Potentials
Membrane potential shifts caused by neurotransmitters, either excitatory (EPSPs) or inhibitory (IPSPs).
EPSPs
Triggered by sodium influx, leading to depolarization.
IPSPs
Caused by chloride influx, resulting in hyperpolarization.
Spatial Summation
Integration of postsynaptic potentials from different locations on the dendritic tree.
Temporal Summation
Integration of postsynaptic potentials occurring close in time at the same location.
Neurotransmitter Receptors
Receptors can be ionotropic (ligand-gated ion channels) or metabotropic (G-protein coupled receptors).
Ionotropic Receptors
Enable rapid, direct responses.
Metabotropic Receptors
Provide slower, longer lasting modulation of cellular activities.
Neurotransmitter Criteria
Synthesized in a neuron, released from the presynaptic terminal, produces a specific response, is reabsorbed and metabolized.
Key Neurotransmitters
GABA- Major inhibitory neurotransmitter and Glutamate-Main excitatory neurotransmitter.
Dopamine
Involved in reward, cognition, emotions, behavior, and motivation.
Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)
Modulates arousal, mood, and sexual behavior.
Serotonin
Implicated in sleep states, mood, sexual behavior, and anxiety.
Drugs
Chemicals that change the normal functioning of neurotransmitters at the synapse.
Affinity
Attraction of a drug for a specific receptor type.
Efficacy
Ability of a drug to induce a response once bound to the receptor site.
Agonists
Occupy and activate receptors, mimicking a neurotransmitter.
Antagonists
Occupy and block receptors, preventing activation.
Reuptake Inhibitors
Block the reuptake of neurotransmitters from the synapse.
Sensory Systems
Mechanical, visual, thermal, chemical, electrical, or magnetic.
Receptor Cells
Convert electrical energy from a stimulus into a change in membrane potential in a receptor cell.
Sensory Pathways
Pass through regions of the thalamus and terminate in the cerebral cortex.
Homunculus
Map of the body in the primary somatosensory cortex.
Visual Pathway
From the retina to the optic nerve, to the optic chiasm, to the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, to the primary visual cortex.
Tonotopic Map
Pitch-based map that starts in the cochlea and is maintained throughout the auditory pathways.
Bottom Level of Motor System Hierarchy
Skeletal system and muscles.
Spinal Cord
Manages skeletal muscles in response to sensory information.
Brainstem
Integrates motor commands from higher cortical areas.
Primary Motor Cortex
Initiates main commands for actions.
Non-Primary Motor Cortices
Additional source of motor commands.
Cranial Motor Nuclei
Located in the brainstem; responsible for movements of the face and neck.
Pyramidal System
Network of neurons in the cerebral cortex and their axons, which form the pyramidal tract to the spinal cord.
Modulatory Control of Motor Functions
Premotor cortex, Supplementary motor area, Cerebellum, and Basal ganglia.
Premotor Cortex
Movements in response to external influences.
Supplementary Motor Area
Planning movements that are internally generated.
Cerebellum
Monitor ongoing activity to produce smooth movements.
Basal Ganglia
Works with the motor cortex to initiate and terminate movements.
Types of Learning
Classical (Pavlovian) and Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Stimulus that naturally causes a behavior (UCR).
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Reflexive behavior to the stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Normally a neutral stimulus that causes a response after conditioning.
Conditioned Response (CR)
Response elicited by the conditioned stimulus.
Engram
Neural concept connecting novel sensory information to existing pathways.
Memory Types
Short-term memory (including working memory) and long-term memory.
Baddeley's Working Memory Model
Visual spatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, phonological loop, and central executive.
Working Memory
Ability to process and transform information in memory.
Long-Term Memory
Capacity to retain information for adaptive purposes; declarative and non-declarative.
Declarative Memory
Explicit knowledge; divided into semantic and episodic memory.
Semantic Memory
Knowledge of facts.
Episodic Memory
Memory for personally experienced events.
Non-Declarative (Procedural) Memory
Implicit memory associated with knowing how to do something.
Neuroplasticity
The brain's ability to change as a result of experience.
Simplest Form of Neuroplasticity
Change to synaptic transmission.
Synaptogenesis
Formation of new synapses.
Synaptic Pruning
Loss of synapses that are not frequently activated.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
Cells that fire together, wire together.
Neurochemical Cascade in LTP
LTP leads to the activation of cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (or CREB).
Neuroplasticity
Capacity of the brain to change in response to experience, greatest early in life.
Schachter's Cognitive Attribution Theory
Proposes that our emotional experience results from the cognitive analysis of the context around us.
Six Basic Emotions
Anger, sadness, happiness, fear, disgust, and surprise.
Cortex Involvement in Emotion
Inhibition of emotional responses, particularly aggression.
Klüver–Bucy Syndrome
Loss of fear, hypersexuality, and putting non-food items in mouth.
Stress
Any circumstance that upsets homeostatic balance.
Homeostatic Balance
Maintaining constant temperature, stable blood sugar levels, and mental alertness.
Stress Response
Hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system, releasing adrenaline, noradrenaline, and cortisol.
Effects of Stress Hormones
Increasing heart rate, breathing, and releasing energy stores.
Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System
Hormonal system, parasympathetic system and sympathetic system.
Repeated Stressful Experience
Military recruits doing parachute jumps; the body learns to anticipate and adjust for predictable stress.
Homeostasis
All animals have mechanisms to keep physical systems in a steady, optimal state.
Set Point
Energy-efficient state for a homeostatic system.
Negative Feedback
Regulatory mechanism in which a change triggers a response that counteracts the initial change.