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33 Terms
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The French Revolution and Ideals
* Primarily outward looking with a focus on universal ideals. Declaration of the Rights of man was an attempt to build civic nationalism in France
* All men everywhere were created equal in terms of their fundamental political rights.
* The goal was to spread these ideals so that others could benefit from them.
* All men everywhere were created equal in terms of their fundamental political rights.
* The goal was to spread these ideals so that others could benefit from them.
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The Unification of Germany and Culture
* Primarily inward looking with a focus on determining the characteristics that were specific to German identity. Language, literature, customs, religion, etc. were used to build a specific collective German nation.
* All Germans were created equally, but it is the cultural differences that make them unique from other cultures.
* The goal was to foster a common German identity; one that was specific to the German people.
* All Germans were created equally, but it is the cultural differences that make them unique from other cultures.
* The goal was to foster a common German identity; one that was specific to the German people.
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German Unification Timeline
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Confederation means
→ levels of government
* Federal
* If there is most power → tight confederation
* Regional
* If there is most power here → loose confederation
* What you should see in a healthy confederation is conflict between the central authority and the regional authority to keep both of them in check
* Federal
* If there is most power → tight confederation
* Regional
* If there is most power here → loose confederation
* What you should see in a healthy confederation is conflict between the central authority and the regional authority to keep both of them in check
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Factors working against German Unification into the 19th Century
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* 1. Central Europe remained politically divided. The Holy Roman Empire had over 300 states. Confederation of the Rhine had 39 states and the German Confederation was also made up of 39 states. There already existed Prussian culture, Bavarian culture, etc.
* 2. The idea of creating a common cultural identity for new Germany was a threat to other major powers, particularly Austria. These major powers could unite to stop the formation of Germany.
* 3. Rulers in small states felt their power would be reduced in a united Germany. Fear of domination by a more powerful German state.
* 4. Thirty Years’ War (1618-48) - these religious wars pitted Protestants in the north against Catholics in the south. Religion continued to divide north Germans from south Germans,
* 5. Western regions of central Europe were more industrial than eastern regions. western Germans did not have the same economic interests as eastern Germans
* 6. There was no clear geographical frontier to determine where a new Germany would begin and end.
* 7. As the 19th century unfolded, there was no clear consensus over the political form it would take. Republic, constitutional monarchy, federation, etc.
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* 1. Central Europe remained politically divided. The Holy Roman Empire had over 300 states. Confederation of the Rhine had 39 states and the German Confederation was also made up of 39 states. There already existed Prussian culture, Bavarian culture, etc.
* 2. The idea of creating a common cultural identity for new Germany was a threat to other major powers, particularly Austria. These major powers could unite to stop the formation of Germany.
* 3. Rulers in small states felt their power would be reduced in a united Germany. Fear of domination by a more powerful German state.
* 4. Thirty Years’ War (1618-48) - these religious wars pitted Protestants in the north against Catholics in the south. Religion continued to divide north Germans from south Germans,
* 5. Western regions of central Europe were more industrial than eastern regions. western Germans did not have the same economic interests as eastern Germans
* 6. There was no clear geographical frontier to determine where a new Germany would begin and end.
* 7. As the 19th century unfolded, there was no clear consensus over the political form it would take. Republic, constitutional monarchy, federation, etc.
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Factors Favoring German Unification into the 19th Century
1. German philosophers and artists were calling for a united Germany
2. While central Europe was politically divided, it seemed to be moving in the direction of greater unity beginning with the Confederation of the Rhine created by Napoleon in 1806
3. The Zollverein (formed in 1818) - this was a free trade zone first started within Prussia, but by 1844 most of the states within the German Confederation belonged to it. If there were clear benefits from economic union, perhaps political union would bring about other benefits.
4. A state supported Trade Institute (1821) was established in Prussia to explore ways of encouraging industry and designing machines for factories. The idea was emerging that the state could play a positive role in economic affairs through education. The power of the state in building German nationalism was emerging.
5. Surrounded by other more unified and more powerful nations/empires. The Battle of Leipzig in 1813 and the defeat of Napoleon demonstrated the potential military strength of a united Germany. In this battle a number of smaller German states contributed to the Prussian effort.
6. With the example of Italian unification, German unification gained momentum
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The Vormarz Period - Austrian Dominance Throughout the Metternich Era
The Vormarz is a period of German history between 1815-1848. It is characterized by budding liberal reform movements and a growing sense of German nationalism. These movements were effectively crushed during this time by reactionary forces typically directed from Austria or Prussia.
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How did the political structure of the German Confederation (1815) work to the advantage of Austria
The German Confederation was more of a tight federation, which allowed Austria just to work through one government to control the entire confederation.
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What was the Wartburg Festival (October 18, 1817) Action
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1. The Wartburg Festival was a historic event that took place on October 18, 1817, at Wartburg Castle in Eisenach, Germany. The castle was Martin Luther’s place of refuge during protestant reformation. The festival was organized by a group of university students from Jena, Heidelberg, and Berlin, who were inspired by the ideas of the German Romantic movement and wanted to promote German unity and independence.
2. The festival was attended by around 500 students, including notable figures such as the poets Heinrich Heine and Ludwig Uhland. The festival included speeches, poetry readings, and musical performances, and was intended to celebrate the German language, literature, and culture.
3. One of the key moments of the festival was when the student leaders burned a pile of books deemed to be symbols of the old order, including texts by conservative and reactionary authors. This act of book-burning was intended to symbolize the rejection of outdated ideas and the embrace of new, progressive ideals.
4. Wanted constitution
5. The Wartburg Festival is considered to be an important event in the history of German nationalism, and it played a role in inspiring the later German revolutions of 1848.
1. The Wartburg Festival was a historic event that took place on October 18, 1817, at Wartburg Castle in Eisenach, Germany. The castle was Martin Luther’s place of refuge during protestant reformation. The festival was organized by a group of university students from Jena, Heidelberg, and Berlin, who were inspired by the ideas of the German Romantic movement and wanted to promote German unity and independence.
2. The festival was attended by around 500 students, including notable figures such as the poets Heinrich Heine and Ludwig Uhland. The festival included speeches, poetry readings, and musical performances, and was intended to celebrate the German language, literature, and culture.
3. One of the key moments of the festival was when the student leaders burned a pile of books deemed to be symbols of the old order, including texts by conservative and reactionary authors. This act of book-burning was intended to symbolize the rejection of outdated ideas and the embrace of new, progressive ideals.
4. Wanted constitution
5. The Wartburg Festival is considered to be an important event in the history of German nationalism, and it played a role in inspiring the later German revolutions of 1848.
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What were the Karlsbad Decrees (September 20, 1819) Reaction
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1. Series of resolutions passed during meeting between the German states
1. Passed by a German Confederation
2. Organized by Metternich, response to political instability
1. Author (August von Kotzebue) was murdered by Karl Ludwig Sand, used this as an excuse to host a meeting to create change
2. Nature of the decrees
1. Really conservative + reactionary
2. Student section
1. Removed liberal university professors
2. Enforced laws against secret societies in universities
3. If students were about to be expelled: they couldn't enter any other school
3. Press section
1. Had to be approved by state
2. If they suppress newspaper, editor would have to wait 5 years before creating similar paper
4. investigating committee
1. Would investigate possible secret societies
1. Series of resolutions passed during meeting between the German states
1. Passed by a German Confederation
2. Organized by Metternich, response to political instability
1. Author (August von Kotzebue) was murdered by Karl Ludwig Sand, used this as an excuse to host a meeting to create change
2. Nature of the decrees
1. Really conservative + reactionary
2. Student section
1. Removed liberal university professors
2. Enforced laws against secret societies in universities
3. If students were about to be expelled: they couldn't enter any other school
3. Press section
1. Had to be approved by state
2. If they suppress newspaper, editor would have to wait 5 years before creating similar paper
4. investigating committee
1. Would investigate possible secret societies
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What was the Hambach Festival (May 27-30, 1832) Action
Political demonstration that took place in Hambach Castle near town of Neustadt (disguised as festival bc demonstrations were banned)
1. One of the largest + most important democratic demonstrations of early 19th century Germany
2. Organized by group of liberal and progressive intellectuals who were advocating for political and social reform in Germany
1. Inspired by ideas of French Rev + other liberal European movements
3. Attracted 25000 to 30000 people
1. Including students, intellectuals, workers from all over Germany
2. Gathered to discuss political and social issues + call for political freedom and national unity
4. Colorful event: participants wore colorful costumes + waved flags and banners
5. Most famous symbol = black, red, and gold flag
1. Became symbol of German democratic movement
6. Significance
1. Marked turning point in history of German democracy
2. Created national identity among Germans + inspired democratic movement in Germany
1. One of the largest + most important democratic demonstrations of early 19th century Germany
2. Organized by group of liberal and progressive intellectuals who were advocating for political and social reform in Germany
1. Inspired by ideas of French Rev + other liberal European movements
3. Attracted 25000 to 30000 people
1. Including students, intellectuals, workers from all over Germany
2. Gathered to discuss political and social issues + call for political freedom and national unity
4. Colorful event: participants wore colorful costumes + waved flags and banners
5. Most famous symbol = black, red, and gold flag
1. Became symbol of German democratic movement
6. Significance
1. Marked turning point in history of German democracy
2. Created national identity among Germans + inspired democratic movement in Germany
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What were the Six Articles (June 28, 1832) Reaction
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1. Exists because of the Hambach Festival where they want the federal government to be stronger than the state governments. This legislation wants federal laws to be predominant to state laws.
2. Limited ability for individuals to express their own political will (a clamp down on state legislatures)
1. If anything “damages the peace” then it wouldn’t be allowed
2. Authoritarian governments tend to eliminate speech that criticize their governments.
3. TLDR: federal law > state law
1. Exists because of the Hambach Festival where they want the federal government to be stronger than the state governments. This legislation wants federal laws to be predominant to state laws.
2. Limited ability for individuals to express their own political will (a clamp down on state legislatures)
1. If anything “damages the peace” then it wouldn’t be allowed
2. Authoritarian governments tend to eliminate speech that criticize their governments.
3. TLDR: federal law > state law
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What were the Ten Articles (July 5, 1832) Reaction
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1. Took place after the Revolution and Hambach Festival
2. Forced Metternich to take new measures bc of unrest
3. Made common disciplinary rules for maintaining public peace, order
1. Conservatives were winning bc it opposed lots of nationalistic and democratic movements
4. 6 articles were not strong enough, so 10 articles were made
5. Austria tends to get it’s way until enough is enough
1. Took place after the Revolution and Hambach Festival
2. Forced Metternich to take new measures bc of unrest
3. Made common disciplinary rules for maintaining public peace, order
1. Conservatives were winning bc it opposed lots of nationalistic and democratic movements
4. 6 articles were not strong enough, so 10 articles were made
5. Austria tends to get it’s way until enough is enough
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What became of the Metternich in 1848 and why would this be significant into the future for Austrian/Prussian relations?
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1. Metternich ran away because of the 1848 revolutions
2. Austria falls apart
1. Metternich ran away because of the 1848 revolutions
2. Austria falls apart
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Simmerings of German Nationalism
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1. 1840 - In response to a possible invasion by France and German states west of the Rhine, there was an outpouring of nationalist songs and poems. One of which became the German national anthem: Deutschland uber Alles which translates to “Germany above the others”
2. 1846 - looked like the Danish King was about to annex Schleswig and Holstein. Backed down after enormous public outcry and threat of war by Prussia, Bavaria and Austria
3. 1847 - Hippenhelm Meeting. Hoped to bring about an elected German federation and spoke of creating a permanent standing army and national guard.
1. 1840 - In response to a possible invasion by France and German states west of the Rhine, there was an outpouring of nationalist songs and poems. One of which became the German national anthem: Deutschland uber Alles which translates to “Germany above the others”
2. 1846 - looked like the Danish King was about to annex Schleswig and Holstein. Backed down after enormous public outcry and threat of war by Prussia, Bavaria and Austria
3. 1847 - Hippenhelm Meeting. Hoped to bring about an elected German federation and spoke of creating a permanent standing army and national guard.
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Germany in Revolution 1848-49
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* Background: the 1848-49 Revolutions were complex and “messy” affairs. Throughout the German Confederation, there was a mixture of liberalism and nationalism. These forces at first gained ground but ultimately fizzed out. There were liberal reform movements within a variety of German states while at the same time the Frankfurt Parliament was trying to construct a national vision for a unified Germany.
* The Frankfurt Parliament
* Began with the Declaration of Heidelberg (March 5, 1848)
* Within two months elections were held throughout the German Confederation for a newly created Frankfurt Parliament. It met for the first time in May 1848. When it began meeting, both Prussia and Austria were consumed with domestic uprisings
* The primary goal was to create a **tighter federation** with a stronger central authority. They were essentially doing the same kind of work as the National Assembly did in France 60 years before, they needed a constitution. The problem was that they could not agree on the substance of it.
* The Parliament remained divided over the vision of a Grossdeutchland versus a Kleindeutschland. The longer it remained divided the more opportunity conservative forces had to regroup
* In March 1849, the Frankfurt Parliament finished its work on the constitution for the new German Empire it was to become a constitutional monarchy. They decided upon a Kleindeutschland but now needed a monarch to fill the role of the executive authority; Prussia’s Frederick William IV was the choice
* The Outcome
* Austria saw the vision as an obvious threat to her power which set the stage for future conflict with Prussia. Frederick William IV was not interested in being the king of a unified Germany if it meant his power was reduced; he declined stating that only the princes of the German Confederation had the authority to offer him such a crown. Without a head, the Frankfurt Parliament collapsed.
* Background: the 1848-49 Revolutions were complex and “messy” affairs. Throughout the German Confederation, there was a mixture of liberalism and nationalism. These forces at first gained ground but ultimately fizzed out. There were liberal reform movements within a variety of German states while at the same time the Frankfurt Parliament was trying to construct a national vision for a unified Germany.
* The Frankfurt Parliament
* Began with the Declaration of Heidelberg (March 5, 1848)
* Within two months elections were held throughout the German Confederation for a newly created Frankfurt Parliament. It met for the first time in May 1848. When it began meeting, both Prussia and Austria were consumed with domestic uprisings
* The primary goal was to create a **tighter federation** with a stronger central authority. They were essentially doing the same kind of work as the National Assembly did in France 60 years before, they needed a constitution. The problem was that they could not agree on the substance of it.
* The Parliament remained divided over the vision of a Grossdeutchland versus a Kleindeutschland. The longer it remained divided the more opportunity conservative forces had to regroup
* In March 1849, the Frankfurt Parliament finished its work on the constitution for the new German Empire it was to become a constitutional monarchy. They decided upon a Kleindeutschland but now needed a monarch to fill the role of the executive authority; Prussia’s Frederick William IV was the choice
* The Outcome
* Austria saw the vision as an obvious threat to her power which set the stage for future conflict with Prussia. Frederick William IV was not interested in being the king of a unified Germany if it meant his power was reduced; he declined stating that only the princes of the German Confederation had the authority to offer him such a crown. Without a head, the Frankfurt Parliament collapsed.
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Failed reform efforts in Prussia resulted in Frederick William IV granting his own Constitution
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* Attempts at liberal reform in Prussia in many ways mimicked what was happening in Frankfurt. Frederick William IV first appeared to support liberal reform, but gradually reasserted his power as the reformers proved unable to deliver a constitution
* The end result was that force was used to dissolve the Prussian Parliament in Berlin and Frederick William IV created his own constitution (1850). Not surprisingly it wasn’t a particularly liberal constitution. Constitutions imposed from above will become the norm. Bismarck will repeat this process in 1871.
* Prussian Constitution of 1850
* The King (Executive)
* Initiated all legislation and appointed all ministers
* Could alter the constitution at any time
* Retained control for the army
* Had power to call new elections
* The Prussian Diet (Bicameral Legislature)
* Lower House
* Elected by universal male suffrage, but distribution of seats depended on the proportion of taxes paid
* ⅓ ⅓ ⅓
* How much you paid in taxes affect how much you controlled the house
* 17% of voters controlled 67% of the seats
* Had the power to block spending bills
* Upper House
* Elected but by only those with substantial property qualification
* Attempts at liberal reform in Prussia in many ways mimicked what was happening in Frankfurt. Frederick William IV first appeared to support liberal reform, but gradually reasserted his power as the reformers proved unable to deliver a constitution
* The end result was that force was used to dissolve the Prussian Parliament in Berlin and Frederick William IV created his own constitution (1850). Not surprisingly it wasn’t a particularly liberal constitution. Constitutions imposed from above will become the norm. Bismarck will repeat this process in 1871.
* Prussian Constitution of 1850
* The King (Executive)
* Initiated all legislation and appointed all ministers
* Could alter the constitution at any time
* Retained control for the army
* Had power to call new elections
* The Prussian Diet (Bicameral Legislature)
* Lower House
* Elected by universal male suffrage, but distribution of seats depended on the proportion of taxes paid
* ⅓ ⅓ ⅓
* How much you paid in taxes affect how much you controlled the house
* 17% of voters controlled 67% of the seats
* Had the power to block spending bills
* Upper House
* Elected but by only those with substantial property qualification
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The End of Metternich and the Beginning of an Austrian/Prussian Rivalry
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* Prussian Plan
* With Metternich gone, the forces of conservatism were on the ropes. In such a situation, the Erfurt Union Plan was proposed in 1849
* The plan called for a new German Empire (Reich) made up of 28 states; Austria was excluded from the new union. A meeting of all representatives was called for March 1850
* Austrian Response
* The new Austrian foreign minister, Schwarzenberg, responded by calling for a meeting of the old German Confederation members; Hanover and Saxony deserted Prussia. A meeting of the German Confederation was to take place in May 1850
* By the summer of 1850 there were two assemblies claiming to speak for Germany. The Prussian-led Erfurt parliament and the Austrian-led Frankfurt Diet
* Prussian Plan
* With Metternich gone, the forces of conservatism were on the ropes. In such a situation, the Erfurt Union Plan was proposed in 1849
* The plan called for a new German Empire (Reich) made up of 28 states; Austria was excluded from the new union. A meeting of all representatives was called for March 1850
* Austrian Response
* The new Austrian foreign minister, Schwarzenberg, responded by calling for a meeting of the old German Confederation members; Hanover and Saxony deserted Prussia. A meeting of the German Confederation was to take place in May 1850
* By the summer of 1850 there were two assemblies claiming to speak for Germany. The Prussian-led Erfurt parliament and the Austrian-led Frankfurt Diet
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The Capitulation/Humiliation of Olmutz: November 1850
* A revolution broke out in Hesse-cassel and the Prussian army mobilized. Austria responded that only troops sanctioned by the German Confederation could intervene. Small scale fighting broke out between Austrian and Prussian troops.
* Prussian leadership did not have the will or confidence to pursue a full scale war against Austria. Prussia abandoned its Erfurt Union Plan and suffered a diplomatic humiliation
* In May 1851, the German Confederation was formally re-established with Prussian support
* It was becoming clear that the largest obstacle to Prussian strength was Austria
* Quote from Otto von Bismark in 1856
* Germany is clearly too small for us both…. In the not too distant future we shall have to fight for our existence against Austria…. It is not within our power to avoid that, since the course of events in Germany has no other solution.
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* Prussian leadership did not have the will or confidence to pursue a full scale war against Austria. Prussia abandoned its Erfurt Union Plan and suffered a diplomatic humiliation
* In May 1851, the German Confederation was formally re-established with Prussian support
* It was becoming clear that the largest obstacle to Prussian strength was Austria
* Quote from Otto von Bismark in 1856
* Germany is clearly too small for us both…. In the not too distant future we shall have to fight for our existence against Austria…. It is not within our power to avoid that, since the course of events in Germany has no other solution.
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The Emergence of Otto Von Bismarck - the practitioner of Realpolitik
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* Politics is not itself an exact logical science, but it is the capacity to choose in each fleeting moment of the situation that which is least harmful and most opportune.
* “I am not so arrogant as to assume that the likes of us are able to make history. My task is to keep an eye on the currents of the latter and steer my ship in them as best I can.”
* He’s not like Napoleon who said that he’s creating history. You don’t make the wave, but you should ride it very well.
* “When a man says he approves of something in principle, it means he hasn’t the slightest intention of carrying it out in practice.”
* It’s about status and public persona, which is cheap. Bismarck is saying a lot of people talk about principle to make themselves morally superior to others but don’t actually do it in practice. Bismarck knows that he’s not morally superior but he doesn’t care.
* “To retain respect for sausages and laws, one must not watch them in the making.”
* What goes into a sausage → remnants of animals that you can’t serve up on a plate.
* Laws → don’t really deserve respect when you see how they’re made.
* “A statesman…must wait until he hears the steps of God sounding through events, then leap up and grasp the hem of His garment.”
* “People never lie so much as after a hunt, during a war or before an election”
* People are self-centered
* “Never believe anything in politics until it has been officially denied.”
* Pretty cynical
* “They treat me like a fox, a cunning fellow of the first rank. But the truth is that with a gentleman I am always a gentleman and a half, and when I have to deal with a pirate, I try to be a pirate and a half.”
* He treats others how they act. He says that he can adjust to the environment remarkably well, better than anybody else.
* Politics is not itself an exact logical science, but it is the capacity to choose in each fleeting moment of the situation that which is least harmful and most opportune.
* “I am not so arrogant as to assume that the likes of us are able to make history. My task is to keep an eye on the currents of the latter and steer my ship in them as best I can.”
* He’s not like Napoleon who said that he’s creating history. You don’t make the wave, but you should ride it very well.
* “When a man says he approves of something in principle, it means he hasn’t the slightest intention of carrying it out in practice.”
* It’s about status and public persona, which is cheap. Bismarck is saying a lot of people talk about principle to make themselves morally superior to others but don’t actually do it in practice. Bismarck knows that he’s not morally superior but he doesn’t care.
* “To retain respect for sausages and laws, one must not watch them in the making.”
* What goes into a sausage → remnants of animals that you can’t serve up on a plate.
* Laws → don’t really deserve respect when you see how they’re made.
* “A statesman…must wait until he hears the steps of God sounding through events, then leap up and grasp the hem of His garment.”
* “People never lie so much as after a hunt, during a war or before an election”
* People are self-centered
* “Never believe anything in politics until it has been officially denied.”
* Pretty cynical
* “They treat me like a fox, a cunning fellow of the first rank. But the truth is that with a gentleman I am always a gentleman and a half, and when I have to deal with a pirate, I try to be a pirate and a half.”
* He treats others how they act. He says that he can adjust to the environment remarkably well, better than anybody else.
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Background to Bismark becoming Chancellor
* Bismarck came from a wealthy Junker background
* 1848 he was a member of the short-lived Prussian United Parliament
* From 1851-59 he was a member of the revived German Confederation and it was here that he grew to resent the power that Austria had within it
* In 1859 he was appointed Prussian ambassador to Russia
* In 1862 he was appointed Prussian ambassador to France
* In each of these positions, Bismarck demonstrated exceptional ability and firmly displayed his Conservative credentials
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* 1848 he was a member of the short-lived Prussian United Parliament
* From 1851-59 he was a member of the revived German Confederation and it was here that he grew to resent the power that Austria had within it
* In 1859 he was appointed Prussian ambassador to Russia
* In 1862 he was appointed Prussian ambassador to France
* In each of these positions, Bismarck demonstrated exceptional ability and firmly displayed his Conservative credentials
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William I and his Army Bill
William I and his Army Bill
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* In 1858, Frederich William IV was pronounced insane and his brother William I became king of Prussia. William I had a keen interest in the military and was horrified by the poor mobilization of Prussian troops during the Second war of Italian Unification (1859). William wished to reform the Prussian Military.
* The lower house refused to pass this bill which was intended to increase military funding and extend compulsory military services from 2 to 3 years. William dissolved the lower house, but the newly elected house still would not support the bill.
* A constitutional crisis emerged; William I threatened to abdicate unless he got his way.
* Enter Bismarck
* A deal was made. Bismarck promised William that he could resolve this matter. With that, william appointed Bismarck Chancellor in 1862
* Bismarck’s solution was remarkably simple: he asserted the authority of the executive to rule and declared that taxes could be raised and force used to collect those taxes without lower house support.
* “It is not through speeches and majority decisions that the great questions of the day are decided. That was the great mistake of 1848/49. It is by iron and blood.”
* Bismarck’s first speech to the Prussian parliament as Prime Minister 1862
* In 1858, Frederich William IV was pronounced insane and his brother William I became king of Prussia. William I had a keen interest in the military and was horrified by the poor mobilization of Prussian troops during the Second war of Italian Unification (1859). William wished to reform the Prussian Military.
* The lower house refused to pass this bill which was intended to increase military funding and extend compulsory military services from 2 to 3 years. William dissolved the lower house, but the newly elected house still would not support the bill.
* A constitutional crisis emerged; William I threatened to abdicate unless he got his way.
* Enter Bismarck
* A deal was made. Bismarck promised William that he could resolve this matter. With that, william appointed Bismarck Chancellor in 1862
* Bismarck’s solution was remarkably simple: he asserted the authority of the executive to rule and declared that taxes could be raised and force used to collect those taxes without lower house support.
* “It is not through speeches and majority decisions that the great questions of the day are decided. That was the great mistake of 1848/49. It is by iron and blood.”
* Bismarck’s first speech to the Prussian parliament as Prime Minister 1862
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Bismarck and the Unification of Germany “Blood and Iron” - Stage One of Unification
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* Background to the Danish War 1864
* A succession crisis emerged when King Frederick VII of Denmark dies childless; his family had ruled over Schleswig and Holstein for 400 years
* Schleswig was made up of Danes in the north and Germans in the south. It was not part of the German Confederation
* Holstein was to the south and composed primarily of Germans. It belonged to the German Confederation
* When the new Danish king was pronounced (Christian of Glucksburg), the government officials in both Schleswig and Holstein refused to swear allegiance to him. They put forward the Duke of Augustenburg as their choice for ruler.
* Danish troops were sent to Schleswig. German nationalists were outraged as they felt the wishes of Germans in Schleswig were being ignored; they also feared that Danish troops would be sent into Holstein next
* Bismarck insists that the Danes remove their troops from Schleswig; but they refused
* Bismarck needed to ensure no other European powers would become involved if Prussia decided to attack Denmark
* In 1863, Bismarck had supported Russia in her efforts to crush a revolt by Polish nationalists. The suppression was brutal and Russia was severely condemned by Britain, France and Austria. Russia felt alienated from these powers and Bismarck was confident the Russians would not object if Bismarck took action against the Danes.
* Bismarck told Napoleon III that France would receive parts in the Rhineland if France remained neutral
* Bismarck asked for Austrian help so as not to offend Austria. Austria was obligated to send troops to maintain her position of authority within the German Confederation. The administration of the two areas was to be determined following the war.
* British public opinion was against more military involvement on the continent since the bloodbath of the Crimean war; Bismark felt confident Britain would remain on the sidelines.
* Results of the 1864 Danish War - Prussia and Austria easily defeated the Danes. The other major powers did not get militarily involved. By the Treaty of Vienna, Denmark gave up Schleswig and Holstein. The details of the administration of the areas was to be determined later.
* Background to the Danish War 1864
* A succession crisis emerged when King Frederick VII of Denmark dies childless; his family had ruled over Schleswig and Holstein for 400 years
* Schleswig was made up of Danes in the north and Germans in the south. It was not part of the German Confederation
* Holstein was to the south and composed primarily of Germans. It belonged to the German Confederation
* When the new Danish king was pronounced (Christian of Glucksburg), the government officials in both Schleswig and Holstein refused to swear allegiance to him. They put forward the Duke of Augustenburg as their choice for ruler.
* Danish troops were sent to Schleswig. German nationalists were outraged as they felt the wishes of Germans in Schleswig were being ignored; they also feared that Danish troops would be sent into Holstein next
* Bismarck insists that the Danes remove their troops from Schleswig; but they refused
* Bismarck needed to ensure no other European powers would become involved if Prussia decided to attack Denmark
* In 1863, Bismarck had supported Russia in her efforts to crush a revolt by Polish nationalists. The suppression was brutal and Russia was severely condemned by Britain, France and Austria. Russia felt alienated from these powers and Bismarck was confident the Russians would not object if Bismarck took action against the Danes.
* Bismarck told Napoleon III that France would receive parts in the Rhineland if France remained neutral
* Bismarck asked for Austrian help so as not to offend Austria. Austria was obligated to send troops to maintain her position of authority within the German Confederation. The administration of the two areas was to be determined following the war.
* British public opinion was against more military involvement on the continent since the bloodbath of the Crimean war; Bismark felt confident Britain would remain on the sidelines.
* Results of the 1864 Danish War - Prussia and Austria easily defeated the Danes. The other major powers did not get militarily involved. By the Treaty of Vienna, Denmark gave up Schleswig and Holstein. The details of the administration of the areas was to be determined later.
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Stage two of Unification
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* Background to the Austro-Prussian War (Seven Weeks War) 1866
* Soon after Denmark was defeated, Prussia began to argue with Austria over who exactly should enjoy the spoils of victory over Denmark. Austria wanted to be free of commitments in the area, and suggested the Duke of Augustenburg assume control of Schleswig and Holstein; Bismarck wanted the dutchies under Prussian control. At the Convention of Gastein (1865) it was decided that Prussia would administer Schleswig and Austria would administer Holstein; Bismarck reluctantly agreed. Preparations for war with Austria began.
* Bismarck needed to ensure no other European powers would become involved if Prussia decided to attack Austria
* He was confident that Britain (due to public opinion) would remain neutral and was also confidence that Russia would not object to Austria being defeated (major rival in the Balkans)
* Assured Napoleon III that Prussia would not get involved if France decided to take over Belgium or Luxembourg. Bismarck believed that Napoleon III would like nothing more than to see Austria and Prussia fight a long resource depleting war. Once the two were exhausted and militarily weakened. France could then play a role in the peace negotiations and benefit territorially at the expense of both Prussia and Austria
* A secret agreement was reached with Italy whereby if Italy declared war against Austria within three months following the start of the conflict, Italy would receive Venetia.
* Bismarck now began to provoke Austria into war
* Bismarck publicly demanded Austrian hand Holstein to Prussia and also demanded the role of Austria within the German Confederation be reformed. Austria began to mobilize for war while advocating that the matter be resolved before an unreformed German Confederation
* Prussia also begins to mobilize for war. On June 9, Bismarck sent troops into Holstein; Austria chose to withdraw without a fight. With this demonstration of Austria weakness, Bismarck advocated for the full removal of Austria from the German Confederation and that all troops be placed under Prussian authority
* Bismarck then issued an ultimatum to Hanover, Hesse-Cassel and Saxony to side with Prussia or else be regarded as enemies. Hesse-Cassel and Saxony submitted, but fighting briefly broke out between Hanover and Prussia; Hanover was quickly defeated.
* Results of the Austro-Prussian War (Seven Weeks War) - Italy joined the war (and lost) which forced Austrians to split their forces. Prussia was able to take advantage of their rail system and surround the Austrians at the Battle of Sadow (July 3, 1866)
* By the Treaty of Prague Prussia annexed a number of states; Schleswig, Holstein, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, nassau, and Frankfurt. A new confederation was formed among all the remaining German states in the north. The North German Confederation was born with Prussia by far the most dominant state within it.
* Prussia did not invade Vienna nor did Prussia directly take over any Austrian territory. Venetia did pass to Italy. The south German states also remained independent out of fear of the French reaction.
* Bismarck in a letter to William I following Austria’s defeat:
* We have to avoid wounding Austria too severely, we have to avoid leaving behind in her unnecessary bitterness or feeling or desire for revenge. We out to keep the position of becoming friends again. If Austria were severely injured. She would become the ally of France and of every opponent of ours… German Austria we could neither wholly nor partially make use. The acquisition of provinces like Austrian Silesia and part of Bohemia could not strengthen the Prussian state.
* Background to the Austro-Prussian War (Seven Weeks War) 1866
* Soon after Denmark was defeated, Prussia began to argue with Austria over who exactly should enjoy the spoils of victory over Denmark. Austria wanted to be free of commitments in the area, and suggested the Duke of Augustenburg assume control of Schleswig and Holstein; Bismarck wanted the dutchies under Prussian control. At the Convention of Gastein (1865) it was decided that Prussia would administer Schleswig and Austria would administer Holstein; Bismarck reluctantly agreed. Preparations for war with Austria began.
* Bismarck needed to ensure no other European powers would become involved if Prussia decided to attack Austria
* He was confident that Britain (due to public opinion) would remain neutral and was also confidence that Russia would not object to Austria being defeated (major rival in the Balkans)
* Assured Napoleon III that Prussia would not get involved if France decided to take over Belgium or Luxembourg. Bismarck believed that Napoleon III would like nothing more than to see Austria and Prussia fight a long resource depleting war. Once the two were exhausted and militarily weakened. France could then play a role in the peace negotiations and benefit territorially at the expense of both Prussia and Austria
* A secret agreement was reached with Italy whereby if Italy declared war against Austria within three months following the start of the conflict, Italy would receive Venetia.
* Bismarck now began to provoke Austria into war
* Bismarck publicly demanded Austrian hand Holstein to Prussia and also demanded the role of Austria within the German Confederation be reformed. Austria began to mobilize for war while advocating that the matter be resolved before an unreformed German Confederation
* Prussia also begins to mobilize for war. On June 9, Bismarck sent troops into Holstein; Austria chose to withdraw without a fight. With this demonstration of Austria weakness, Bismarck advocated for the full removal of Austria from the German Confederation and that all troops be placed under Prussian authority
* Bismarck then issued an ultimatum to Hanover, Hesse-Cassel and Saxony to side with Prussia or else be regarded as enemies. Hesse-Cassel and Saxony submitted, but fighting briefly broke out between Hanover and Prussia; Hanover was quickly defeated.
* Results of the Austro-Prussian War (Seven Weeks War) - Italy joined the war (and lost) which forced Austrians to split their forces. Prussia was able to take advantage of their rail system and surround the Austrians at the Battle of Sadow (July 3, 1866)
* By the Treaty of Prague Prussia annexed a number of states; Schleswig, Holstein, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, nassau, and Frankfurt. A new confederation was formed among all the remaining German states in the north. The North German Confederation was born with Prussia by far the most dominant state within it.
* Prussia did not invade Vienna nor did Prussia directly take over any Austrian territory. Venetia did pass to Italy. The south German states also remained independent out of fear of the French reaction.
* Bismarck in a letter to William I following Austria’s defeat:
* We have to avoid wounding Austria too severely, we have to avoid leaving behind in her unnecessary bitterness or feeling or desire for revenge. We out to keep the position of becoming friends again. If Austria were severely injured. She would become the ally of France and of every opponent of ours… German Austria we could neither wholly nor partially make use. The acquisition of provinces like Austrian Silesia and part of Bohemia could not strengthen the Prussian state.
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Stage Three of Unification
* __Background to the Franco-Prussian War 1870-71__
* In 1866, France began negotiations for the possession Luxemburg with the King of Netherlands; Bismarck came out opposed to the idea. From this point on relations between France and Germany began to deteriorate.
* A succession crisis in Spain resulted in the crown being offered to Prince Leopold a relative of William I. WIlliam I was opposed since it would infuriate the French but Bismarck insisted that WIlliam I consent to Leopold becoming the King of Spain; France was outraged and sent Count Benedetti to Ems where William I was vacationing to make the French position clear. If Leopold’s name was not withdrawn, war would result. Leopold’s name was withdrawn; this was a huge diplomatic victory for France.
* The French then pursued the matter one more step. They wanted WIlliam I to publicly renounce any relative of his from ever accepting the throne in Spain. William was offended and decided to issue a telegram to Bismarck about what had taken place. Bismarck altered the telegram (The Ems Telegram) and then had it published on July 13
* Bismarck described his actions in his memoirs:
* After I had read out the concentrated version to my two guests, Moltke remarked. “Now it has a different ring, in its original form it sounded like a parley; now it is like a flourish in answer to a challenge’. I went on to explain: “If in execution of His Majesty’s order, I at once communicate this text… not only to the newspapers but by telegraph to all our embassies it will be a red rag on a French bull. Fight we must if we do not want to act the part of the vanquished without a battle. Success, however, depends essentially upon the impression which the origination of the war makes upon us and others: it is important that we should be the ones attacked.
* Bismarck needed to ensure that no other European power would become involved if Germany decided to attack France
* Bismarck bribed Russia to declare support for Germany if Austria supported France; this kept Austria neutral. Also, the recent defeat of Austria by Prussia would make the Austrians think twice before fighting against a more power Germany
* Rome was occupied by French troops; this ensured Italy would not come to the aid of France.
* Bismarck published a private diplomatic document that showed French designs on Belgium as part of the deal of securing French neutrality during the Seven Weeks’ War; this enraged British public opinion against the French
* On July 19, 1870 France declared war against the North German Confederation
* Results of the Franco Prussian War - France was severely defeated in a number of battles (battle of Sedan was most notable). Napoleon III was captured and briefly imprisoned. German troops advanced to Paris and shelled it for six months until the government of the Third French Republic accepted the terms of the Treaty of Frankfurt (May 1871)
* German troops remained in France until reparations of 200 million pounds had been paid
* Alsace and Lorraine were annexed to Germany
* The south German states joined Germany and the North German Confederation became the German Empire led by Emperor William I.
* Tremendous resentment fueled French revenge
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* In 1866, France began negotiations for the possession Luxemburg with the King of Netherlands; Bismarck came out opposed to the idea. From this point on relations between France and Germany began to deteriorate.
* A succession crisis in Spain resulted in the crown being offered to Prince Leopold a relative of William I. WIlliam I was opposed since it would infuriate the French but Bismarck insisted that WIlliam I consent to Leopold becoming the King of Spain; France was outraged and sent Count Benedetti to Ems where William I was vacationing to make the French position clear. If Leopold’s name was not withdrawn, war would result. Leopold’s name was withdrawn; this was a huge diplomatic victory for France.
* The French then pursued the matter one more step. They wanted WIlliam I to publicly renounce any relative of his from ever accepting the throne in Spain. William was offended and decided to issue a telegram to Bismarck about what had taken place. Bismarck altered the telegram (The Ems Telegram) and then had it published on July 13
* Bismarck described his actions in his memoirs:
* After I had read out the concentrated version to my two guests, Moltke remarked. “Now it has a different ring, in its original form it sounded like a parley; now it is like a flourish in answer to a challenge’. I went on to explain: “If in execution of His Majesty’s order, I at once communicate this text… not only to the newspapers but by telegraph to all our embassies it will be a red rag on a French bull. Fight we must if we do not want to act the part of the vanquished without a battle. Success, however, depends essentially upon the impression which the origination of the war makes upon us and others: it is important that we should be the ones attacked.
* Bismarck needed to ensure that no other European power would become involved if Germany decided to attack France
* Bismarck bribed Russia to declare support for Germany if Austria supported France; this kept Austria neutral. Also, the recent defeat of Austria by Prussia would make the Austrians think twice before fighting against a more power Germany
* Rome was occupied by French troops; this ensured Italy would not come to the aid of France.
* Bismarck published a private diplomatic document that showed French designs on Belgium as part of the deal of securing French neutrality during the Seven Weeks’ War; this enraged British public opinion against the French
* On July 19, 1870 France declared war against the North German Confederation
* Results of the Franco Prussian War - France was severely defeated in a number of battles (battle of Sedan was most notable). Napoleon III was captured and briefly imprisoned. German troops advanced to Paris and shelled it for six months until the government of the Third French Republic accepted the terms of the Treaty of Frankfurt (May 1871)
* German troops remained in France until reparations of 200 million pounds had been paid
* Alsace and Lorraine were annexed to Germany
* The south German states joined Germany and the North German Confederation became the German Empire led by Emperor William I.
* Tremendous resentment fueled French revenge
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Key aspect of the 1871 German Constitution (Federal Level)
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* Executive (King/Emperor)
* Could dissolve the Reichstag
* King was the Prussian king
* Appointed all ministers (came from outside the legislature) and these ministers were responsible to him
* Could interpret the constitution
* Controlled foreign policy and the military
* Legislature
* 1. Reichstag
* Prussia had 235/397 seats
* Could accept or reject legislation, but couldn't initiate new laws
* Members were not paid
* Elected by all males over 25 years old
* 2. Bundesrat
* Prussia had 17/58 seats
* Could accept or reject legislation, but couldn’t initiate new laws
* Appointed by state legislatures
* Executive (King/Emperor)
* Could dissolve the Reichstag
* King was the Prussian king
* Appointed all ministers (came from outside the legislature) and these ministers were responsible to him
* Could interpret the constitution
* Controlled foreign policy and the military
* Legislature
* 1. Reichstag
* Prussia had 235/397 seats
* Could accept or reject legislation, but couldn't initiate new laws
* Members were not paid
* Elected by all males over 25 years old
* 2. Bundesrat
* Prussia had 17/58 seats
* Could accept or reject legislation, but couldn’t initiate new laws
* Appointed by state legislatures
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Austria vs Prussia (Success Summary)
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Account for Austria’s Decline
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* Rise of liberalism which lead to the rise of nationalism
* Liberalism comes first because you have to be able to think freely
* Favors Prussia bc Prussia is surrounded by German people
* The German people should belong to one state, Prussia will be the dominant German state among the smaller German states
* Doesn’t favor Austria because Austria is made of many ethnic groups and nationalities
* Makes it difficult for them to rise as a unifying force, as certain people should belong to their own groups + territory
* Constant war
* Evidence of weakening, not actual reason for decline
* People were desperate, thought that if they didn’t fight continuously they would not survive
* Being able to win wars: what is the thing that allows people to win?
* Critical determinant: industrialization
* However, not all countries industrialize at the same rate
* England started to industrialization movement, and proximity to england matters
* Austria didn’t participate in Crimean War
* Loses Lombardy to Italy
* Loses Venetia to Italy (against Prussia)
* Zollverein
* Worked to help Prussia and ended up developing
* Have a larger and larger German market, see that area becoming more productive
* Austria did not join
* Put up trade barriers hoping that your goods will then be able to compete with other industries
* Smaller German states looking towards Prussia
* Looked towards Prussia instead of Austria
* Tells us that Austria is no longer the dominant state within the confederation
* Clear evidence: Frankfurt parliament
* Indicates what could be coming
* Wants to replace German Confederation, but chose it to be Prussian lead bc the crown was offered to Frederick William, Kleindeutschland
* Characters
* Metternich
* Successful until 1848
* Deployed troops in Italy, coerced German states to pass repressive legislation
* Replaced
* Bismarck
* Assertive, uses strategies that work, gets the job done, new dominant figure
* Germany has leadership that allows it to be unified at the expense of Austria
* Nationalist bc German nationalism caters towards Prussian interests
* Prepared to use war to bring German interests together
* Austria’s values
* If nationalism is becoming a major force, they double down on the absolute monarchy
* Problem: if you have that going on and your country is doing well, people will get behind it
* But if the country is going into decline, people will say that the problem is the monarchy
* Especially fi the countries around are adopting constitutions + outperform you
* Germany + Italy have constitutions
* Rise of liberalism which lead to the rise of nationalism
* Liberalism comes first because you have to be able to think freely
* Favors Prussia bc Prussia is surrounded by German people
* The German people should belong to one state, Prussia will be the dominant German state among the smaller German states
* Doesn’t favor Austria because Austria is made of many ethnic groups and nationalities
* Makes it difficult for them to rise as a unifying force, as certain people should belong to their own groups + territory
* Constant war
* Evidence of weakening, not actual reason for decline
* People were desperate, thought that if they didn’t fight continuously they would not survive
* Being able to win wars: what is the thing that allows people to win?
* Critical determinant: industrialization
* However, not all countries industrialize at the same rate
* England started to industrialization movement, and proximity to england matters
* Austria didn’t participate in Crimean War
* Loses Lombardy to Italy
* Loses Venetia to Italy (against Prussia)
* Zollverein
* Worked to help Prussia and ended up developing
* Have a larger and larger German market, see that area becoming more productive
* Austria did not join
* Put up trade barriers hoping that your goods will then be able to compete with other industries
* Smaller German states looking towards Prussia
* Looked towards Prussia instead of Austria
* Tells us that Austria is no longer the dominant state within the confederation
* Clear evidence: Frankfurt parliament
* Indicates what could be coming
* Wants to replace German Confederation, but chose it to be Prussian lead bc the crown was offered to Frederick William, Kleindeutschland
* Characters
* Metternich
* Successful until 1848
* Deployed troops in Italy, coerced German states to pass repressive legislation
* Replaced
* Bismarck
* Assertive, uses strategies that work, gets the job done, new dominant figure
* Germany has leadership that allows it to be unified at the expense of Austria
* Nationalist bc German nationalism caters towards Prussian interests
* Prepared to use war to bring German interests together
* Austria’s values
* If nationalism is becoming a major force, they double down on the absolute monarchy
* Problem: if you have that going on and your country is doing well, people will get behind it
* But if the country is going into decline, people will say that the problem is the monarchy
* Especially fi the countries around are adopting constitutions + outperform you
* Germany + Italy have constitutions
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Germany 1871
* While liberalism can contribute to political diversity and nationalism, the political diversity and nationalism it produces does not have to be liberal
* Slavs the word = slaves
* After the plague (1300s), slaves were able to have more power because people were needed to plow the land
* They turned slaves into tenant farmers
* The nobility enslaved the slavs (slav nobility)
* Emergence of Liberalism
* If people can afford rights and want dignity, you can’t really enslave them anymore
* The biggest group of slavs are Russian
* There’s other Slavic people, as there were other Germanic people
* Russia's slavic size means that the biggest slavic community tends to want to dominate other slavic groups because they can since they’re larger.
* Many of the slavic people reside in Prussia, Austrian Empire and Ottoman Empire.
* Many Russians want to “liberate” the rest of the Slavs, who are “oppressed” by Austrians and Ottomans.
* Will find a lot of slavic people who want their own country.
* Just because people are the same cultural grouping doesn’t mean they are bound together
* Same way that different cultural groupings doesn’t mean they can't be bound together
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* Slavs the word = slaves
* After the plague (1300s), slaves were able to have more power because people were needed to plow the land
* They turned slaves into tenant farmers
* The nobility enslaved the slavs (slav nobility)
* Emergence of Liberalism
* If people can afford rights and want dignity, you can’t really enslave them anymore
* The biggest group of slavs are Russian
* There’s other Slavic people, as there were other Germanic people
* Russia's slavic size means that the biggest slavic community tends to want to dominate other slavic groups because they can since they’re larger.
* Many of the slavic people reside in Prussia, Austrian Empire and Ottoman Empire.
* Many Russians want to “liberate” the rest of the Slavs, who are “oppressed” by Austrians and Ottomans.
* Will find a lot of slavic people who want their own country.
* Just because people are the same cultural grouping doesn’t mean they are bound together
* Same way that different cultural groupings doesn’t mean they can't be bound together
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Who are the Slavs?
* The largest linguistic/ethnic group in Europe
* East Slavs: Belarus, Russia, Ukraine
* West Slavs: Czech republic, Poland, and Slovakia
* South slavs: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia
* Tension exists between Bulgaria and Serbia
* Ottoman Empire
* Gradually, the Ottoman Empire will break apart in the 19th century and collapse after WWI. Why?
* 1. In some places due to rising nationalism and the desire for independence
* 2. In other places the Ottoman Empire will simply be replaced with expanding European Empires
* “If the Ottoman Empire is weakening, why don’t we take part of their empire”
* Being taken by stronger, industrialized European powers
* Happening at the same time of growth of liberalism and nationalism
* Evidence of Ottoman weakening
* 3. Source of resentment and humiliation
* Problem: if you were once great, you resent that you don’t have that anymore, feel diminished, want power back
* Causes resentment, bitterness, anger, possible war
* Built up to WWI
* One by one countries start to become independent
* End of WWI: all that’s left is current Turkey (rise of Young Turks)
* Advocate for a Turkish nation for Turks, also oppress others
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Other European powers will expand outwards to areas and territories that are weaker because it’s too hard to fight for central Europe.
* East Slavs: Belarus, Russia, Ukraine
* West Slavs: Czech republic, Poland, and Slovakia
* South slavs: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia
* Tension exists between Bulgaria and Serbia
* Ottoman Empire
* Gradually, the Ottoman Empire will break apart in the 19th century and collapse after WWI. Why?
* 1. In some places due to rising nationalism and the desire for independence
* 2. In other places the Ottoman Empire will simply be replaced with expanding European Empires
* “If the Ottoman Empire is weakening, why don’t we take part of their empire”
* Being taken by stronger, industrialized European powers
* Happening at the same time of growth of liberalism and nationalism
* Evidence of Ottoman weakening
* 3. Source of resentment and humiliation
* Problem: if you were once great, you resent that you don’t have that anymore, feel diminished, want power back
* Causes resentment, bitterness, anger, possible war
* Built up to WWI
* One by one countries start to become independent
* End of WWI: all that’s left is current Turkey (rise of Young Turks)
* Advocate for a Turkish nation for Turks, also oppress others
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Other European powers will expand outwards to areas and territories that are weaker because it’s too hard to fight for central Europe.
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The Balkans - “the Powder Keg of Europe”
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* The Balkans were under the control of the Ottomans and their composition in many ways mimicked the Austrian Empire. The map below gives a general sense of the ethnic composition of the region. The Ottoman Empire was in rapid decline throughout the 19th century and other countries wished to fill the power vacuum that was emerging.
* The Balkans were under the control of the Ottomans and their composition in many ways mimicked the Austrian Empire. The map below gives a general sense of the ethnic composition of the region. The Ottoman Empire was in rapid decline throughout the 19th century and other countries wished to fill the power vacuum that was emerging.
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The Balkans and Bismarck
* While the Balkans were of no direct interest to Bismarck, they certainly were a factor in constructing his foreign policy. Knowing that both Austria and Russia had interests in the area meant that Bismarck had to do a delicate balancing act in order to maintain good relations with both countries. Both Austria and Prussia were also interested in developing good relations with Germany since this could give one potential leverage over the other in the region. Since Russia and Austria were rivals in the Balkans, each hoped to have a firm alliance with Germany.
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The German Nation and German National Interests
* Otto Von Bismarck in one of his last speeches to the Reichstag
* I have always had one compass only, one lodestar by which I have steered: the welfare of the state… When I have had the time to think I have always acted according to the question, what is useful, advantageous, and right for my Fatherland and - as long as this was only Prussia, for my dynasty.
* You will be asked to explore some of the domestic and foreign policies of Bismarck from 1871 to 1890. Keep in mind Bismarck’s tasks:
* 1: To foster a greater sense of German identity and cohesion
* 2: To keep Germany secure
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* I have always had one compass only, one lodestar by which I have steered: the welfare of the state… When I have had the time to think I have always acted according to the question, what is useful, advantageous, and right for my Fatherland and - as long as this was only Prussia, for my dynasty.
* You will be asked to explore some of the domestic and foreign policies of Bismarck from 1871 to 1890. Keep in mind Bismarck’s tasks:
* 1: To foster a greater sense of German identity and cohesion
* 2: To keep Germany secure
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