Anthropology 102 Final Exam Review-University of South Carolina

what social groups are

two or more people who interact with one another, share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity.

social stratification

a society's categorization of people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power (social and political).

concept of civil society

"aggregate of non-governmental organizations and institutions that manifest interests and will of citizens". Civil society includes the family and the private sphere, referred to as the "third sector" of society, distinct from government and business.

Race

classification of humans into groups based on physical traits, ancestry, genetics, or social relations, or the relations between them.

Ethnicity

the fact or state of belonging to a social group that has a common national or cultural tradition.

"Passing"

when a person classified as a member of one racial group is also accepted as a member of a different racial group.

Gender

the state of being man or woman (typically used with reference to social and cultural differences rather than biological ones).

Sex

either of the two main categories (male and female) into which humans and many other living things are divided on the basis of their reproductive functions.

Sexuality

a person's sexual orientation or preference.

Gender Identity

a person's perception of having a particular gender, which may or may not correspond with their birth sex.

Gender Expression

the way in which a person expresses their gender identity, typically through their appearance, dress, and behavior.

Social Class

a division of a society based on social and economic status.

Achieved position

a social position that a person can acquire on the basis of merit; it is a position that is earned or chosen.

Ascribed position

is the social status a person is assigned at birth or assumed involuntarily later in life. It is a position that is neither earned nor chosen but assigned.

Status

the relative social, professional, or other standing of someone or something.

Modes of Reproduction influenced by Modes of Livelihood

1) The Foraging Mode of Reproduction

-Moderate death and birth rates

-Value of Children: Moderate

-Fertility:

-Indirect means (suppress ovulation)

-Direct means

2) The Agricultural Mode of Reproduction

-High birth rates, declining death rates

-Value of children: high

-Pronatalist technique (encouraging child birth)

-Increased reliance on direct means of birth control

-Increasing specialization: midwives, herbalists

3) The Industrial/Informatics Mode of Reproduction

-Negative population growth in industrial/informatics countires: below replacement level fertility

-Value of children: mixed

-Follows the demographic transition (high number of births/deaths into low numbers of births/deaths)

How Culture Shapes Sexual Intercourse

-Influence...when to start having sex and how often, how many children to have, and when to stop having sex and children

-Cultural guidelines

-Government politics

-Local & International organizations..

Fertility Considerations

At the State Level:

-Economic factors, especially labor requirements

-Maintaining the tax base, military, ethnic, and regional proportions

-Providing public services

-Dealing with population aging

At the Global Level:

-Religious teachings

-International relations and foreign aid

The Cultural Construction of Personality in Childhood

-Six Cultures Study

-Research on many children's behavior in six cultures

-Major finding of difference between horticultural and industrial/informatics sites:

-Horticulture: nurturant-responsible children

-Industrial/informatics: dependent-dominant children

-Mothers' work roles

-Horticultural contexts vs. Industrial/Informatics contexts

Adolescence

the period following the onset of puberty during which a young person develops from a child into an adult.

Asexuality

is the lack of sexual attraction to anyone, or low or absent interest in or desire for sexual activity.

Demographic transition

refers to the transition from high birth and death rates to lower birth and death rates as a country or region develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system.

Female genital mutilation

the ritual removal of some or all of the external female genitalia. The practice is found in Africa, Asia and the Middle East, and within communities from countries in which FGM is common.

Fertility

the ability to conceive children or young.

Gender Plurarlism

Having someone coexist with multiple genders

heteronormativity

denoting or relating to a world view that promotes heterosexuality as the normal or preferred sexual orientation.

Hijra

is the migration or journey of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Yathrib, later renamed by him to Medina, in the year 622.

Two-spirit/berdache

Two Spirit (also two-spirit or twospirit) is a modern umbrella term used by some indigenous North Americans to describe certain spiritual people[1][2] - gay, lesbian, bisexual and gender-variant individuals - in their communities.[3][4] The term was adopted in 1990 at an Indigenous lesbian and gay international gathering to encourage the replacement of the anthropological term berdache.

Infanticide

the crime of killing a child within a year of birth

Menarche

the first occurrence of menstruation

Menopause

the ceasing of menstruation.

the period in a woman's life (typically between 45 and 50 years of age) when this occurs.

Mode of Reproduction

ways of reproduction usually via sexual intercourse or sperm implanting

Mortality

the state of being subject to death.

Personality

the combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual's distinctive character.

Puberty

Puberty is the time in life when a boy or girl becomes sexually mature. It is a process that usually happens between ages 10 and 14 for girls and ages 12 and 16 for boys. It causes physical changes, and affects boys and girls differently. In girls: The first sign of puberty is usually breast development.

Cross cultural perspective consumtpion

Hedonic and utilitarian consumption... Hedonic serves emotions and fantasies where as utilitarian is necessity

Balanced exchange vs. Unbalanced exchange

Generalized reciprocity can be defined as when the individuals involved just assume that the exchange will balance out. ... Negative reciprocity is the exchange of goods or services when at least one party attempts receive something for nothing in return without suffering consequences.

Cash Crop

a crop produced for its commercial value rather than for use by the grower.

Consumerism vs. Minimalism

the protection or promotion of the interests of consumers. Minimalism is a trend in sculpture and painting that arose in the 1950s and used simple, typically massive, forms.

Entitlement

the fact of having a right to something.

Leveling Mechanism

leveling mechanism is a practice that acts to ensure social equality, usually by shaming or humbling members of a group that attempt to put themselves above other members.

Market Exchange

An market exchange (also called simply exchange or bourse) is a highly organised market where brokers and traders buy and sell securities such as shares, commodities, currencies, futures and options. Market exchanges can be facilitated with a clearing house to cover defaults, or over-the-counter

Material Culture

Material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make, or have made. The term tends to be relevant only in archeological and anthropological studies, but it specifically means all material evidence which can be attributed to culture, past or present

Mode of consumtpion

a mode of consumption that emphasizes simplicity, is characterized by few and finite consumer demands, and involves an adequate and sustainable means to achieve them.

Mode of Exchange

ways and means of exchange

Money

a current medium of exchange in the form of coins and banknotes; coins and banknotes collectively.

Potlach

A potlatch is a gift-giving feast practiced by indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast of Canada and the United States, among whom it is traditionally the primary economic system.

Pure Gift

A gift economy, gift culture, or gift exchange is a mode of exchange where valuables are not traded or sold, but rather given without an explicit agreement for immediate or future rewards. This contrasts with a barter economy or a market economy, where goods and services are primarily exchanged for value received.

Redistribution

the distribution of something in a different way, typically to achieve greater social equality.

Sex Work

Sex work is the provision of sexual services for money or goods. Sex workers are women, men and transgendered people who receive money or goods in exchange for sexual services, and who consciously define those activities as income generating even if they do not consider sex work as their occupation.

Trade

the action of buying and selling goods and services.

World System Theory

"World-system" refers to the inter-regional and transnational division of labor, which divides the world into core countries, semi-periphery countries, and the periphery countries.[2] Core countries focus on higher skill, capital-intensive production, and the rest of the world focuses on low-skill, labor-intensive production and extraction of raw materials.

3 ways cultures create kinship

Marriage, Birth, Adoption

How Anthropologists look at Households

Household function is concerned with production, consumption, reproduction and socialization.

Descent

the origin or background of a person in terms of family or nationality

Unilineal Descent vs. Bilineal Descent

is research of descent among one line of the family and Bi-lineal looks at mother and father lineage

Matrilineal Descent

Mother Lineage

Patrilineal Descent

Father Lineage

Cross cousin vs. parallel cousin

So a parallel cousin is the child of the father's brother (paternal uncle's child) or of the mother's sister (maternal aunt's child), while a cross cousin is the child of the mother's brother (maternal uncle's child) or of the father's sister (paternal aunt's child).

Marriage

the legally or formally recognized union of two people as partners in a personal relationship (historically and in some jurisdictions specifically a union between a man and a woman).

Bride price

Bride price, best called bridewealth, also known as bride token, is money, property, or other form of wealth paid by a groom or his family to the parents of the woman he has just married or is just about to marry.

Bride Service

Bride service has traditionally been portrayed in the anthropological literature as the service rendered by the bridegroom to a bride's family as a bride price or part of one (see dowry). Bride service and bride wealth models frame anthropological discussions of kinship in many regions of the world.

Dowry

property or money brought by a bride to her husband on their marriage.

Endogamy vs. Exogamy

Endogamy is when one marries someone within one's own group. Exogamy is when one marries someone outside one's own group.

Family

a group consisting of parents and children living together in a household.

Household

a house and its occupants regarded as a unit.

Nuclear Household

A nuclear family, elementary family or conjugal family is a family group consisting of two parents and their children (one or more). It is in contrast to a single-parent family, to the larger extended family, and to a family with more than two parents.

Extended Household

An extended family is a family that extends beyond the nuclear family, consisting of parents, aunts, uncles, and cousins, all living nearby or in the same household.

Incest Taboo

An incest taboo is any cultural rule or norm that prohibits sexual relations between closely related persons.

Kinship system

the system of social relationships that constitute kinship in a particular culture, including the terminology that is used and the reciprocal obligations that are entailed

Matrifocality

(of a society, culture, etc.) based on the mother as the head of the family or household

Polygamy

the practice or custom of having more than one wife or husband at the same time.

Polandry

polygamy in which a woman has more than one husband.

Polygyny

polygamy in which a man has more than one wife

Bracero

The Bracero Program (from the Spanish term bracero, meaning "manual laborer" or "one who works using his arms") was a series of laws and diplomatic agreements, initiated on August 4, 1942, when the United States signed the Mexican Farm Labor Agreement with Mexico.

Migration

seasonal movement of animals from one region to another

Chain Migration

Chain migration refers to the social process by which immigrants from a particular town follow others from that town to a particular city or neighborhood, whether in an immigrant-receiving country or in a new, usually urban, location in the home country.

Circular Migration

Circular migration or repeat migration is the temporary and usually repetitive movement of a migrant worker between home and host areas, typically for the purpose of employment. It represents an established pattern of population mobility, whether cross-country or rural-urban.

Internal Migration

Internal migration is human migration within one geopolitical entity, usually a nation-state.

International Migration

International migration is a global phenomenon that is growing in scope, complexity and impact. Migration is both a cause and effect of broader development processes and an intrinsic feature of our ever globalizing world.

Transnational Migration

"those persons who having migrated from one nation-state to another live their lives across borders, participating simultaneously in social relations that embed them in more than one nation-state."

Development-induced Displacement

occurs when people are forced from their homes and/or land as a result of development. This subset of forced migration has been historically associated with the construction of dams for hydroelectric power and irrigation but is also the result of various development projects such as mining, agriculture, the creation of military installations, airports, industrial plants, weapon testing grounds, railways, road developments, urbanization, conservation projects, and forestry.

Institutional Migrant

someone who moves into another social instituion such as college

Lifeboat mentality

a view that seeks to limit enlarging a particular group because of perceived resource constraints

New Immigrant

First generation immigrant to a new area

Push-Pull Theory

Push and pull factors are those factors which either forcefully push people into migration or attract them. A push factor is forceful, and a factor which relates to the country from which a person migrates. It is generally some problem which results in people wanting to migrate.

Refugee

a person who has been forced to leave their country in order to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster.

Remittance

a sum of money sent, especially by mail, in payment for goods or services or as a gift.

Right of Return

The right of return is a principle which is drawn from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, intended to enable people to return to, and re-enter, their country of origin.

Acculturation

cultural modification of an individual, group, or people by adapting to or borrowing traits from another culture the acculturation of immigrants to American life; also : a merging of cultures as a result of prolonged contact.

Critical development anthropology

The anthropology of development is a term applied to a body of anthropological work which views development from a critical perspective.

Assimilation

is the process by which immigrants become similar to natives, particularly in a cultural sense - leading to the reduction of ethnic difference between them.

Cultural Fit

A fit is where there is congruence between the norms and values of the organization and those of the person.

Development

the process of developing or being developed

Development Project

Project Development is the process that takes a transformation. improvement from concept through construction. There are several. ... To encourage early planning, public outreach, and evaluation so that project needs, goals and objectives, issues, and impacts can be identified before significant resources are expended.

Project Cycle

is the process of planning, organizing, coordinating, and controlling of a project effectively and efficiently throughout its phases, from planning through execution then completion and review to achieve pre-defined objectives or satisfying the project stakeholder by producing the right deliverable at the right time, cost and quality.

Diffusion/ invention

Diffusion is defined as the borrowing by one society of a cultural trait belonging to another society as the result of contact between the two societies. ... Invention denotes the process of creating new ideas to solve cultural problems.

Extractive industry

The extractive industry consists of any operations that remove metals, mineral and aggregates from the earth. Examples of extractive processes include oil and gas extraction, mining, dredging and quarrying.

Male Bias in development

This book argues that the development process is marked by male bias - ill-founded and unjustified asymmetries that operate in favour of men and against women. ... Together they analyze the variety of forms taken by male bias: its foundations and the way it changes over time; and the possibilities of overcoming it.

Microcredit loans

Microcredit is the extension of very small loans (microloans) to impoverished borrowers who typically lack collateral, steady employment and a verifiable credit history.