AQA - A Level: Product Design - Paper 2

Arts & Crafts

1880-1920

➜ Traditional craftsmanship using simple forms

➜ Essentially anti-industrial

➜ Appreciation of the beauty of materials (e.g. wood grain)

➜ Hand produced using craft skills (e.g. natural forms of medieval Europe)

William Morris, CFA Voysey, Richard Norman Shaw

Art Deco

1920-1930

➜ Represented luxury, glamour, exuberance and faith in social and technological progress

➜ Sunburst motifs - commonly seen in architecture and surface patterns

➜ Ziggurat (Stepped pyramids) - e.g. Empire State Building

➜ Simple geometric shapes

Clarice Cliff, Eileen Gray, Alvar Aalto, Walter Dorwin Teague

Modernism/(Bauhaus and De Stijl)

1919-1933

➜ Form follows function

➜ Embraced the machine age

➜ Used geometrically pure forms

➜ Created everyday products for everyday people - used mass-production

Modernism: JJP Oud, Piet Mondrian, Gerrit Rietveld, Robert van't Hoff

Bauhaus: Walter Gropius, Marcek Breuer, Mies Van Der Rohe, Marrianne Brandt

Streamlining

The development of products using flowing curves and chrome detailing inspired by the increased study into aerodynamics in the early twentieth century

➜ Seen in car design as early as 1920's, application of streamlining to household objects was seen as modernist and developments of materials such as Bakelite enabled replication of curves.

Raymond Loewy, Norman Bel Geddes, Henry Dreyfuss

Post-modernism

1980s

➜ Bold, colourful and playful designs - used bright colours

➜ Simplistic juxtapositions of geometric positions - used geometric forms in seemingly random positions

➜ Challenging forms that compromised on function - sculptural designs took precedence over functionality

Memphis group, Mark Newson, Danny Lane, Phillipe Starck

Memphis design

A late-twentieth-century design group who challenged modernist design views

Philippe Starck

French Product Designer

➜ Works on kitchenware - aesthetics before function

➜ Work in architecture and interior design - "democratic design", affordable and desirable products for population rather than elite

Juicy Salif (Phillipe Starck)

Single piece aluminium casting, functions successfully.

- High centre of mass, becomes unstable during use

- Head of juicer is only large enough for a lemon

+ Form is striking so it's likely to be displayed rather than sorted like other juicers

+ The legs prevent juice from running down the sides due to angle and wide base means that a glass can be placed underneath

James Dyson

British Design Engineer

➜ Designs household products in innovate ways

➜ the Dyson vacuum cleaner - using contrasting colour schemes, changing dust reduction systems

➜ Wheelbarrow with the ball wheel

DC01 Vacuum cleaner

➜ Introduced bagless dual cyclone cleaning system

➜ Colour scheme aids used

➜ 3d sculpted form based on flow of air

➜ Injection moulded ABS apart from PC dust bin

➜Uses many integral fixings, allows disassembly and aids maintenance

➜ Clear polycarbonate bin shows off dust

Margaret Calvert

British Graphic Designer

➜ Developed the signs and fonts on UK road signs w Jock Kinneir

➜ Provided simple and clear communication with motorists through developing stylised silhouette forms

➜ Mix of upper and lower cased letters because the mix was proved to improve readability and high speeds through testing

Dieter Rams

German Functionalist Designer (less but better)

➜ Worked with Braun and did what Bauhaus did with furniture for consumer electronics, took ornamental wooden casings and replacing them with functional minimalist designs in white and grey

➜ Developments heavily depended on technological developments like the transistor and thermoplastics

Dieter Ram's key principles of good design

Good design is:

➜ Innovative

➜ Understandable

➜ Unobtrusive

➜ What makes a product useful

➜ Thorough down to the last detail

➜ Honest

➜ Has longevity

➜ Environmentally friendly

➜ Aesthetic, 'form follows function'

➜ As little design as possible, minimalist

Charles and Ray Eames

Modernist designers

➜ Moulded plywood and polymer furniture

➜ Paved the way for single-form seating in both plywood and polymers

Lounge Chair Wood (LCW)

Charles and Ray Eames

➜ Evolved form their work with the USA navy, developing leg splints from laminated plywood forms.

Marianne Brandt

Bauhaus designer

➜ Developed geometrically pure kitchenware products, successful at a time when Bauhaus products typically were not

➜ Simplicity of design ensured longevity and relevance in modern design

➜ Embodied Bauhaus

Post-WWI

➜ War caused mass production and machinery to be used in factories.

➜ Bauhaus designers embraced the industrial manufacturing methods and materials of WWI, such as tubular steel, to revolutionise the design of and the mass manufacture of furniture.

Socio-economics

How society and the economy interact to create particular circumstances

WWII

Due to the war effort and bombing, there was a shortage of timber. Furniture had to be designed that were

➜ Basic, used minimal amounts of locally-sourced wood, and traditional techniques

➜ Utility products.

Utility products

Post-WW2 basic products that were often rationed

Council of Industrial Design (COID)

Post WWII British organisation set up to improve design standards and competitiveness

Post-WWII

The Council of Industrial Design (COID) was set up in post-war Britain to improve design standards and competitiveness.

➜ Allowed for an increase in the range of decorative and fashionable products due to the development in materials, manufacturing, and technology, in addition to growing influences from abroad.

Microelectronics

Miniature electronic devices and systems facilitated by the development of smaller ICs.

➜ The newfound processing power of materials like silicon, and its ability to have a small size, allowed for integrated circuits (ICs) to make a significant impact on design and designing.

➜ They have made computers capable of carrying out millions of calculations at high speeds; its made products that were previously inconvenient, bulky and energy intensive possible with the incorporation of microelectronics

➜ Moore's law

Sustainable

Something that has the minimum impact on the environment

Glulam

The use of several pieces of timber glued together to create a strong composites for use in buildings, bridges and other structures.

➜ Its strengths stems from the careful choice of laminates eliminates the defects created by knots

➜ It has a better strength-to-weight ratio than steel, and is much cheaper as it uses less energy to create.

➜ Also sustainable.

Kevlar

An artificial fibre that has tremendous toughness and tensile strength due to its density and chemical bonds.

➜ It's also extremely lightweight and used in things like bulletproof vests and puncture-resistant tyres.

Precious Metal Clay (PMC)

Consists of precious metals bound together with a pliable material medium so that they can be shaped into jewellery and other products.

➜ They are then heated up, where the clay sets and the material shrinks a tiny amount - which needs to be factored into the design.

Nanomaterials

Any number of uses

➜ Could be used in nanoelectric devices, to coat materials, and has medical and energy applications.

➜ They have great potential for advancement and improvement in product design, but they are not recyclable and can be quite toxic.

Electrohydraulic forming

Forming a complex sheet metal parts using a single sided former by using a shockwave generated by an electrical spark in a tank of water. Similar procedures use explosives.

➜ Only needs one sided former rather than the two needed for a conventional press

➜ It can produce deep, complex and fine shapes

➜ Deals with a range of materials

➜ Single stage process, is very fast

➜ Material is evenly distributed so no weak spots

Advanced 3D printing of metals

A laser is used to fuse metal particles layer by layer to build the required item. Uses Direct Metal Laser Sintering which is a form of Selective Laser Sintering.

➜ It can create strong, lightweight parts with complex features, such as internal voids, and is useful when making prototypes.

Fibre-injection moulding

Pellets of glass/ carbon fibre filled polymers such as polyamide (nylon) are used. Reinforced fibre roving is incorporated into the polymer being moulded.

➜ Popular in the automotive industry - produces parts that are strong, stiff, lightweight, and economical.

➜ They are sustainable as they use carbon fibre offcuts and waste from conventional injection moulding.

Laser beam welding

The intense heat of a laser beam is used to join multiple pieces of metal (increasingly adopted for automotive applications)

➜ It's fast and capable of producing narrow and deep welds, as well as being able to weld a wide range of materials.

➜ Can be combined with other types of welding to increase their speed and efficiency

➜ Welds a wide range of metals and is capable of welding dissimilar metals

➜ Area affected by heat from the laser is narrow, minimises distortion

➜ Weld is smooth enough to require no further finishing processes

➜ More accurate than other methods

➜ Unnecessary to use filler rods

➜ Small, thin components can be welded with less likelihood of damage

➜ However, it has a high initial cost, health and safety needs to be considered, needs a clean environment to protect the optics

Physical Vapour Deposition

Method of producing thin films of material or coating products with a finishing surface (alternative to electroplating)

➜ Works by heating the base material so that it vaporises, passes thorugh a vacuum to condense on the target material, depositing a thin layer of required material

➜ Used for the production of semi-conductor components, food packaging, machine tool cutting tips and decorative products

➜ Related process called Chemical Vapour Deposition for similar purposes but relies on chemical reactions instead

Internet of Things

The connection of a range of devices over networks such as the Internet and WIFI.

➜ Smart fridges with cameras and RFID tags on internally stored produce can be applied to a JIT manufacturing system instead

➜ Facilitates a dynamic response to anything that changes in the system (a machine fault so schedules need ti be reorganised)

➜ Facilitates "predictive maintenance" whereby sensors constantly monitor the condition of elements of a machine: the data collected would indicate when servicing, repair or replacements of various parts when it is needed and this would be automatically scheduled in

Advancements of CAD/CAM

➜ Increased the potential for designing and making products with the help of computers e.g. cloud-based software and VR.

Ethical

Something considered by society to be morally fair

Migration

A movement from one country or region to another, relocating with requirements that can be be responded to by designers, companies and NGO's such as

➜ Food and water

➜ Clothing

➜ Housing

➜ Medical care

Practical Action

An international NGO charity that has over 100 projects worldwide that are appropriate technology e.g. micro hydro-electric power stations to generate electricity so people can work their way out of poverty.

➜ Alleviated poverty in Sri Lanka with the 3 ring concrete compost bin made by locals.

➜ IP can sometimes be a hindrance to the development of affordable products since priority for owners of the IP would be financial reward rather than altruism and PA prefers an "Open Design" approach.

Free and open source software (FOSS)

Software that is available free or at a very low cost and can be changed by the user

Fairtrade

A social movement to encourage the ethical treatment of farmers and workers in developing countries

Design Process

A system to organise designing and making a prototype of a product

Model

Either a 3D CAD drawing or a physical mock up used to communicate designs and making prototypes

Specification

A list of key points that a designer follows when developing designs and making prototypes

Primary research

Investigation techniques that use first-hand sources such as interviews, observation, disassembly of products

SCAMPER

A technique of modifying existing designs to create new ideas

➜ Substitute - change materials, components, finishes etc

➜ Combine - mix ideas or parts of ideas together

➜ Adapt - alter the design, use part of another idea, change the function, adapt mechanisms or useful parts

➜ Modify - change the shape of the design or part of it, increase or decrease the size

➜ Put it to another use alt use of design, different functions?

➜ Eliminate - remove and reduce parts, simplify

➜ Reverse - turn the design inside out or upside down

Illustration

Can be used in the design process

➜ Isometric to sketch design ideas

➜ One-point perspective to show buildings or room interiors

➜ Two- point perspective to draw objects from a range of different viewing angles

➜ Exploded views are sued to show the relationship of the parts of the product and how they assemble

➜ Marker renderings are used to represent colour and materials/finishes on design drawings

➜ Sectional views are used to show the cross section of products - useful in showing hidden detail such as holes and slots

➜ Orthographic is used to show the front, plan and end view of an object - usually drawn to scale

➜ Flow charts are used to show the sequence of a manufacturing process - particularly useful in illustrating the QC stages

➜ 3D CAD is used to give an artist's impression of designs or to make a virtual model.

➜ 2D CAD is used to draw parts for cutting out/machining on computer controlled equipment, or to produce working drawings/ orthographic projections.

Culture

The combined ways of living developed by a group of people that is passed from generation to generation

Crowd funding

The practice of funding a project or venture by raising small amounts of money through donations from a large amount of people, typically raised via the Internet.

➜ An alternative source of finance for altruistic product design projects.

Inclusivity

Consideration of the needs of the widest possible range of people

Product life cycle

The stages a product goes through:

➜ Introduction

➜ Growth

➜ Maturity

➜ Decline and replacement

Introduction

The product is launched, usually with a lot of marketing and publicity around it. Sometimes companies will try and convince its customers that they need to get their latest product with the new features (phones, etc)

Growth

Once the product is on the market, sales are expected to grow due to customers buying the latest version. Advertising plays a key role - showing the benefits of the new product

Maturity

Eventually, the sales will reach its peak - it's important for companies to prolong this stage as much as possible to reap the most sales from their product

Decline and replacement

Sales will eventually decline, and the product is removed from sale usually only once the replacement model is on the market and selling well. Customers may need to replace products because spare parts aren't available, it being unable to run the latest software, or because of planned obsolescence.

Safe working practices

Keep the person doing the work, and those nearby, safe and free from harm

Accuracy

The amount of conformity of a measurement to the required value

Tolerance

The acceptable upper and lower limits of a measurement

Measurement

The process of using tools to check existing dimensions

Dimension

The measured distance of a straight line between features of a part/product

Marking out

The transfer of designs onto pieces of material or parts

Datum

A surface/edge used as a reference from which measurements are taken to increase accuracy

Jig

A device used to control the motion of a tool, such as a drill relative to a workpiece

Fixture

A robust frame with holding points to hold components in place while a manufacturing process occurs

Template

A rigid shape/pattern used to transfer a design onto a workpiece to ensure consistency

6 Rs

Reduce, reuse, recycle, rethink, repair, refuse

Reduce

Cutting down the amount of material used in the product/packaging

Reuse

The ability to reuse the product for the same/another purpose at the end of its life

Recycle

Converting waste products into new materials for new products

Repair

The ability to fix a product when it breaks, rather than throwing it away

Rethink

Rethinking the way a product is designed and manufactured to be more efficient

Refuse

Exercise consumer choice as to whether they buy a product or not

Total quality management (TQM)

A project management system focussing on QA through the involvement of the workforce in continual improvement

Scrum

The leading agile development methodology for completing projects with a complex, innovative scope of work. Daily scrum updates with feedback and issues are discussed to help progress, distribution of tasks can be updated based on the issues.

➜ Team can respond quickly to changing customer demand due to regularity of feedback meetings

Quality assurance (QA)

The procedures and policies put in place to reduce waste and ensure manufactured products are produced accurately within tolerances

Lean manufacturing

A systematic approach to production which aims to eliminate all waste from product production.

TIMWOOD (Lean manufacturing)

Waste is split into 7 forms, using the acronym TIMWOOD:

➜ Transport - reducing the distance a product has to travel reduces the risk of damage and loss

➜ Inventory - JiT - reduce the inventory on site as any stock held on site is at risk of damage and loss in value

➜ Movement - when assembling products, any unnecessary movement increases product time and so should be minimised

➜ Waiting - reducing the amount of waiting time for other processes to finish in the production line

➜ Over production - producing too much of a product requires more storage, and some products may never be sold, wasting the time and money put into the materials and production

➜ Over processing - using the correct equipment on each manufacturing process - if something isn't needed, then don't get it (e.g., machinery having unnecessary features)

➜ Defects - any defective products must be removed

Six Sigma

A set of techniques to minimise defects

DMAIC (Six Sigma)

➜ Define - what's the issue?

➜ Measure - take steps to measure the extent of the issue

➜ Analyse - determine where the issues occur

➜ Improve - introduce procedures to fix the issues

➜ Control - ensure the procedures are implemented through QA

Lean Six Sigma

Combines TIMWOOD and DMAIC together, minimises defects and waste.

Critical path analysis

A project management system used to analyse all individual stages within a project and to effectively plan the time-efficient completion of each element within the schedule.

Quality control

The monitoring, checking and testing of materials, components, equipment and products throughout production and to adhere to QA and conform to acceptable tolerances

➜ Material checks (visually and deep down)

➜ Dimension accuracy checks

➜ Use of digital measuring devices

➜ Go/no-go gauge

➜ Non-destructive testing

CE mark

Means that a product conforms to all relevant European safety standards and its presence is mandatory for a product to be sold within the EU.

British Standards Institution (BSI)

A national organisation formed to devise agreed standard procedures for a wide range of tasks. Products that conform to specific standards can carry the BSI kitemark.

➜ The presence of a kitemark can be important - consumers can decide to purchase a product due to the presence of it.

➜ If a British standard is accepted by European standardisation, then it carries the prefix BS EN.

International Standards Organisation (ISO)

A federation of national standard bodies that devise international standards to improve safety, productivity, and reliability. Companies can opt out of the standards. ➜ An example of a standard is shipping containers.

User Centred design

Developing products with the end user fully in mind, products will be easy to use

ISO 13407

Principles followed by designers adopting the UCD approach

➜ The design takes full account of users, the task they perform with the product and the environment it is used

➜ Users involved throughout the design and development process

➜ The design is refined by user-centred evaluation

➜ The design process is Iterative

➜ The design considers the whole user experience

➜ The design is developed by a multi-skilled, multi-disciplinary team

➜ Disciplinary team could include: product engineers, engineers, industrial designers, ergonomists and sales and marketing

Iterative

Describes the process of repeatedly going through the circular design process. An iteration would be one cycle of the process

Ergonomics

Concerns the design of products that are easy or comfortable to use, the study of the interaction between products and humans

Anthropometrics

The measurement of the size, proportions, and range of motion of the human body.

Primary investigation

Research carried out first hand

Secondary investigation

Research information that is gathered from books and the internet

Importance of project management systems

Project management systems benefit designers and manufacturers by:

➜ Project management systems, such as Six Sigma are used in identifying areas of weakness/waste within a process.

➜ By using project management systems, such as Critical Path Analysis (CPA) designers and manufacturers can streamline processes removing unnecessary stages.

➜ Manufacturers can reduce waste production by making to order.

➜ By involving all members of a design/manufacture team in decisions TQM can increase efficiency: reducing processing time, reducing movement within the production process, reducing process equipment.

➜ Project management systems can also improve supply efficiencies between manufacturers.

Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS)

A European directive that aims to prevent hazardous substances from entering the production process to prevent damage to human health and the environment. It is required on all products sold in the EU.

Battery Directive

This deals specifically with the safe disposal of batteries and accumulators. It states a limit on the amount of certain substances in batteries, requires batteries to show a crossed out bin to show they can't be put in with normal waste, and to come with clear instructions for safe removal and their disposal.

Polymer codes for identification and recycling

The Mobius loop is a symbol that shows a product can be recycled. The loop can contain a number on it which shows the polymer resin that was used in production so that it can be more effectively recycled.

Packaging directives

Aims to limit the production of and prompt the recycling of packaging materials by ensuring most of the materials can be recovered and that it must be marked with the specific materials used to assist in recycling.

Reasons for NDT testing (specifically X ray)

➜ Method used to test products that can then be sold rather than recycled etc.

➜ Allows the operator to visualise internal defects within a joint you can't see inside

Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)

A mandatory European directive that covers the end of life of electrical and electronic equipment. It states that all relevant products must also carry the crossed-out bin sticker.

Impact of WEEE on manufacturers

➜ Manufacturers are required to provide information for consumers on the correct disposal of appliances.

➜ Manufacturers must ensure all appliances covered by the WEEE directive display the specific symbol for Electrical and Electronic Equipment (crossed out wheelie bin).

➜ Manufacturers must provide dismantling guides and recommendations for easy dismantling and material recovery for the recycling industry.

➜ Manufacturers must organise a take back scheme either directly or indirectly.]

➜ Manufacturers must comply with restrictions in the use of hazardous substances stated in the RoHS (Restriction of Hazardous Substances) Directive. This has led to the reduction in use of heavy metals such as cadmium and mercury in rechargeable batteries and the development of Li ion batteries.

➜ The WEEE (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment) is an EC Directive to manufacturers, requiring them to be registered on the national register of manufacturers.

➜ Manufacturers are required to make regular declarations of the materials they place on the market.

EC Energy Label

Required on household appliances - uses an A+++ to D scale to show the energy efficiency of a product and to assist customers in making purchasing decisions.