Psyc 365: Lecture 5

What did Albert Bandura (2004) has commented that "the quality of health is heavily influenced by lifestyle habits. This enables people to exercise some measure of control over their health. By managing their health habits, people can live longer and healthier and retard the process of aging. Self-management is good medicine" (p. 143). What does this mean?

Healthful behaviour is affected by the facilitators and impediments that someone experiences and the self-efficacy beliefs they have in their ability to deal with them.

A knowledge of how lifestyle decisions related to physical activity, exercise, and sport affect physical and psychological health is a pre-condition to behaviour change.

Sport psychology

influence of psychological factors on sport

Exercise psychology

influence of sport and exercise on psychological behaviour. Can be a leisure activity but it depends on the intention in defining exercise.

Exercise facts

According to Hays, "Exercise psychology attends to the body-to-mind relationship, whereas sport psychology is directed toward the mind-to-body relationship" (Hays, 1999, p. 240).

what did Anshel (2005) suggest about exercise?

Exercise and sport psychology differ primarily with regard to the populations served, the type of physical activity, and the goals of the activity.

Physical activity

Is the expenditure of energy, either purposely or without intention, as a result of bodily movements produced by skeletal muscles as part of leisure or work activities. = body movements.

Gauvin, Levesque, and Richard (2001) have identified four parameters of physical activity. What are they?

1. Type: Identifies the physiological systems that are used in a particular activity, such as aerobic, strength, endurance, and flexibility.

2. Frequency: is concerned with how much the activity is performed over a time period.

3. Intensity: describes the load imposed on physiological systems by an activity (e.g., strenuousness)

4. Duration: indicates the temporal length of a particular activity.

Physical fitness

refers to the physiological functioning and describes attributes we have to influence the ability to perform physical activity.

What are the five forms of physical fitness have been identified ?

1. Cardiorespiratory endurance: which refers to the body's ability to provide oxygen for physical activities for extended periods of time.

2. Muscular endurance: which is the ability of muscle groups to engage in repeated contractions or maintain positions against resistance over a prolonged period of time.

3. Muscular strength: which is the maximum force that a muscle can exert against resistance.

4. Body composition: which reflects the body's percentage of fat, bone, and muscle.

5. Body flexibility: which reflects the range of motion of a joint or group of joints.

Sport

definitions are usually too inclusive; should include power, competition, skills, etc.

An activity that involves rules or limits, a sense of history, an aspect of winning and losing, and an emphasis on physical exertion in the context of competition.

What are the Five Components of Health?

Greenberg and Pargman (1989) describe a health-illness continuum anchored by four points: death, illness, health, and perfect health. Each point on the continuum between death and perfect health is made up of the Five components of health

1. Mental

2. Physical

3. Emotional

4. Social

5. Spiritual

Each component influences, and is influenced by, the others.

Wellness is a function of .....

the balance between the five components. The goal is to be well rounded in all areas.

It is important not to invest in one component of health disproportionately (Pargman, 1998).

Active leisure

is an extremely positive experience associated with activities such as exercise, hobbies, and activities often described as recreational.

• When people engage in these activities, they "tend to be happier, motivated, concentrated, and more often in flow than in any other part of the day.

• It is in these contexts that all the various dimensions of experience are most intensely focused and in harmony with one another" (p. 39).

Passive leisure

typically involves sedentary activities that require little physical or mental effort, such as reading, listening to music, or watching television.

level of physical activity

• active leisure (vs. passive leisure) is linked to positive outcomes and general wellness.

• 30 minutes+/day = recommended.

• adults need to have a minimum of 150 minutes of moderate to vigorous exercise each week in sessions of 10 minutes or more to experience substantial health benefits.

• For children and youth, the recommendation is for a daily average of 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity.

Canadian exercise rates

• Increase in number of Canadians aged 12 or older who are moderately active (stats Canada 2007).

• 52% of the population moderately active while 48% were inactive.

• Men are more likely to be physically than women.

• In 2005, fewer Canadian children participated in sports compared to the participation rate in 1992, with boys showing the largest decline (2008).

Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology developed the "First Ever 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for Adults" (CSEP, 2020). What are the Three core recommendations outlined?

(1) adding movement of different types and intensities throughout the day, including standing

(2) accumulating at least 150 minutes of moderate to vigorous aerobic activity each week

(3) engaging in muscle strengthening activities at least twice a week.

The others involve the reduction of sedentary time to eight hours or less each day and regularly getting 7-9 hours of quality sleep.

five forms of physical activity

Can be divided into 2 parts based on resistance (3) and oxygen intake (2).

What are Three types of physical activity based on resistance

1. Isometric: contract muscle without moving body. contracting a muscle group against an immovable object without movement in the body.

2. Isotonic: weight training. exercise that uses weights or calisthenics to place tension on a muscle through the shortening or lengthening of the muscle group. Most of the exertion occurs in one direction.

3. Isokinetic: exercise that places tension on muscle with range of motion.

What are the two types of physical activity based on oxygen use

1. Anaerobic: exercise, such as sprinting, in which intense effort is expended over a short period of time, resulting in an oxygen debt. lengthy effort.

2. Aerobic: exercise, such as jogging, that involves the increased consumption of oxygen over an extended period of time. intense effort, short range

• based on the principle of resistance, which involves placing demands on, or overloading, the muscles to affect both muscle strength and endurance.

Psychological Benefits of Physical Activity

Extensive literature shows physical and psychological benefits of exercise. Highlight mind-body integration.

Some concerns are: methodology.

• Ostrow (1996) developed special psychological tests for particular sports. Physical activity linked to sense of self, cognitive functioning, and mood

Physical Activity and Sense of Self

Lots of data show correlation between physical activity and mental health.

Physical activity improves one's self-concept. As early as the 1980s, Folkins and Syme (1981) reviewed the existing research regarding physical fitness training and improvements on psychological variables related to perceptions of the self.

They concluded then that physical fitness training results in improved mood, work behaviour, and self-concept and that the "personality research with the highest payoff has been that which focuses on self-concept" (p. 380).

What may be most important here is the perception of change, which can occur quite independently of actual changes in physical fitness.

Exercise is positively associated with

• Improved self-concept (many measures)).

  • ex. Brannon and Feist (2007) conclude that "participation in an exercise program is strongly associated with feeling good about oneself".

• Higher self-esteem1

  • ex. McGannon, and Poon (2005) reviewed studies and examined the effect of participation in physical activity on global self-esteem which they concluded that small but significant improvements occurred and that this effect was larger for those who experienced actual increases in physical fitness.

• Greater perceived self-efficacy, can predicts athlete performance.

Self-efficacy

global beliefs about one's ability to perform in a specific situation.

Bandura defines perceived self-efficacy

as "people's judgement of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances. It is concerned not with the skills one has but with judgements of what one can do with whatever skills one possesses" (Bandura, 1986, p. 391).

He (1990) points out, confidence, as a colloquial term, is an idea that permeates physical activity; however, it does not indicate direction.

Individuals can be quite confident that they will be unsuccessful, but self-efficacy involves the affirmation of performance capabilities.

The implication is that, provided an individual has the required skills and the appropriate incentives, self-efficacy will predict actual performance.

transcendent accomplishments

This sense of transcendence is often expressed in terms of overcoming physical barriers that had once seemed insurmountable. (Bandura).

What are the 4 sources of efficacy expectations (from Bandura, 1998/97) ?

1. Performance accomplishments: actual experiences of mastery, considered to be the most influential source of self-efficacy.

-can strengthen one's belief that even the most difficult of obstacles can be mastered.

2. Vicarious experience: experience that is gained through observing or visualizing others perform a skill, which can alert someone to their own capabilities and raise their sense of self-efficacy.

3. Verbal persuasion: to verbally persuade others that they have the skills to perform a particular task—that is, to talk them into it.

- the utility of this strategy is predicated on a sense of realism.

4. Emotional arousal: a source of efficacy expectation in which individuals assess their emotional level and evaluate their capabilities accordingly; for ex., high levels of emotion may be thought to be debilitating and predictive of failure, or facilitative and lead to an anticipation of success.

- Arousal may be interpreted positively or negatively according to the attributions we make about our physiological state.

Physical Activity and Cognitive Functioning

Inconsistent findings are: link between exercise and improved cognitive function.

-Largely due to poor methodologies? (Tomporowski & Eills, 1986).

-They suggested that exercise, through its effect on the central nervous system, will initially improve attentional processes; however, as the intensity or duration of the exercise increases, this will be negated by the effects of increasing muscular fatigue.

Concluded that "the dominant state determines the ability of subjects to perform tests of cognition. Thus, it may be possible for exercise to either facilitate or impair performance on the same cognitive test depending on the level of physical fitness of the subject and the point at which the subject is tested.

-Results from meta-analysis suggest long-term engagement in exercise improves fitness and cognitive ability (Etnier et al., 1997).

The indication is that acute exercise will have little impact on cognition, whereas chronic exercise that produces gains in fitness will improve cognition.

This conclusion "would support the physiological mechanisms as explanations for the beneficial effects of exercise or fitness upon cognition" and "would suggest that the adoption of a chronic exercise program may be a useful intervention for enhancing cognitive functioning" (p. 267).

Physical Activity and Mood relation

Exercise has been found to reduce state anxiety in some people. "time-out" from daily hassles? increased arousal during exercise?

Physical activity can lessen non-clinical depression and may buffer the effects of stress. Reviews by Martinsen (1990, 1993, 1994), Martinson and Morgan (1997), and North, McCullagh, and Tran (1990) conclude that both aerobic and anaerobic exercise are effective treatments for depression, that exercise has not been shown to be effective with severe depression, that fitness levels are lower for clinically depressed individuals, and that there is no evidence that exercise can prevent relapse.

Benefits from physical activity include

• Improved muscle strength and endurance

• Increased cardiorespiratory fitness,

• Improved flexibility

• Improved weight control and fat metabolism

• Improved sleep

• Prevention of bone density loss,

• A reduction in poor health habits,

• Reduced risk of injury,

• Increased energy,

• Improved cardiovascular functioning

How is cardiovascular functioning Improved by physical exercise?

• Reduced mortality and increased longevity

• Lower risk of cardiovascular disease (CHD).

Other disease prevention and health promotion example

• A major focus for Active Canada 20/20's initiative to raise physical activity levels in Canada is that physical inactivity has been identified as the fourth leading risk factor for global mortality by the World Health Organization.

• Of particular concern with physical inactivity is the increasing prevalence of non-communicable diseases (Active Canada 20/20, 2012).

• Since the 1950s, considerable evidence has been accumulated to demonstrate that those who are physically active are less likely to develop and die from coronary heart disease (CHD)

The impact of physical activity can protecting against cancer for men

They cite research by Warburton and colleagues (2010) indicating that the current Canadian physical activity guidelines, which recommend at least 150 minutes of moderate to vigorous aerobic exercise, are "associated with a 20% to 30% lower risk for premature all-cause mortality and incidence of many chronic diseases, with greater health benefits for higher volumes and greater intensities of activity (i.e., moderate or vigorous intensity rather than light intensity)" (p. 133)

Non-adherence facts

50% drop out within first 6 months

What are the reasons for difficulty with adherence

• Exercise is initially aversive and offers few immediate rewards.

• Competitive nature of sports may threaten self-esteem (e.g., social comparison).

• The environment can be unappealing,

• the activities are monotonous

• progress is often slow,

• a lack of expertise may be obvious

• social comparison with experienced exercisers can be unpleasant.

What are the predictors of Adherence to a program

Requires specific, relevant, salient reasons. Depends on: physical proximity to exercise area, free time, spousal support, group size, S E S, activity choice, and injury.

Adherence study example by Buckworth and Dishman (2007)

Indicate that subtle differences in the terms exercise, physical activity, and lifestyle activity impact how we measure and define adherence. the concept of adherence needs to be reframed to take into account changes in patterns of physical activity that individuals may go through in their lifetime.

Within this framework, it may be unreasonable to expect stability of adherence behaviour over the lifespan.

Adherence study example by Van Dyke and Van Raalte (2020)

highlight the disconnect between knowledge and behaviour regarding physical activity benefits, that people are more motivated to engage in activities they enjoy, suggesting interventions should focus on enhancing physical activity levels.

Self-categorization theory

holds that "people will tend to feel more socially connected to others whom they perceive to be similar to themselves on the basis of salient characteristics" (p. 167).

·Kirschenbaum (1998) said using sport psychology models will

increase adherence to PE.

He uses a self-regulatory model to identify seven steps designed to improve athletic performance

identifying problems, improving commitment, maximizing physical skills, improving positive concentration, managing emotions, creating supportive environments, and evaluating progress (Kirschenbaum, 1997).

- suggests that this model is similar to that used by health psychologists to increase adherence and that sport can be used as a target for exercise adherence.

-He said we could use sport psychology interventions to maximize involvement in such sports.

Psychological Factors Affecting Performance in Exercise and Sport- 2 Areas of concern in sport psychology

1. Psychological skills: Sport skills can be generalized beyond athletic environment to life. performance enhancement as it relates to the development of psychological skills that can be used to optimize athletic performance.

2. Clinical issues: Issues that may compromise an athlete's performance (e.g., injury, eating disorder, depression).

psychoeducational model

developed by Danish, Pettipas, and Hale (1993) for sport psychology that focuses specifically on the teaching of life skills, which they describe as "life development intervention."

Suggests that sport is an effective and accessible analogy for the teaching of life skills. It is obvious that most young athletes will not go on to a career in sports; for these people, "growing up means further defining their identity, discovering other skills and interests, and, it is hoped, applying some of the valuable principles learned during sport participation to their adult pursuits.

psychological skills in sport

arousal or attentional control implemented to enhance performance.

psychological methods in sport

techniques such as relaxation, goal setting, and imagery that are used to develop psychological skills.

sport psychological methods vs skills

A distinction is often made between psychological skills and methods (Vealey, 1988).

Concerns such as arousal or attentional control relate to psychological skills, whereas techniques such as relaxation, goal setting, and imagery are psychological methods; the latter serve to help develop the former.

Dohme, Piggott, Backhouse, and Morgan (2019) reviewed studies and identified 19 psychological skills and characteristics that were seen to be predictive of athlete development. What are some of them?

• Eight psychological skills were identified: goal setting, relaxation, social support seeking, imagery, realistic self-evaluation, self-talk, maintaining a sense of balance, and pre-performance routines.

• The psychological characteristics identified were hard work ethic, emotional control, focus, sport intelligence, competitiveness, self-confidence, interpersonal competencies, resilience, independence, motivation, and positivity.

4 types of psychological methods

1. relaxation skills

2. self-talk

3. Imagery

4. Goal setting

Relaxation skills explained

Techniques to reduce anxiety to manageable levels so that the energy can be used to positively influence performance; based on the principle that we cannot be relaxed and tense at the same time.

• Ability to relax under pressure -> better performance of sport.

• Progressive muscular relaxation (P M R). Breathing control helps.

• Is a learned skill.

Self-talk explained

sport psychology concept to describe one of the methods athletes use to correct bad habits, focus attention, modify activation, increase self- confidence and efficacy, and maintain exercise behaviour.

• Can predict performance success (Orlick & Partington, 1988)

• Can serve many functions in sport, Increase self-confidence and/or efficacy,

• Correct errors and bad habits.

• Positive self-talk can help athletes: Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy.

Imagery explained

Sensory experience of performing the sport without external stimuli.

2 types of imagery

1. Internal: active experience, in own body. The individual is a passive and external third-person observer of their actions.

2. External: third-person observer of self. is a much more active first-person experience, in which the individual imagines being inside their own body, experiencing a situation as close to reality as possible.

• Can help performance but still understanding how best to use it.

• Enhances "psychological variables such as attentional focus, self-confidence, effort regulation, cognitive and emotional reactions control, and automatic execution triggering."

Internal imagery improved muscle strength without physical exercise. Which suggests that

internal imagery training "likely strengthened brain-to-muscle (BTM) command that may have improved motor unit recruitment and activation, and led to greater muscle output.

What is the distinction between imagery and mental rehearsal

The former is a sensory experience that is performed in the absence of external stimuli, whereas mental rehearsal is a technique that involves the use of imagery to mentally practise a skill.

Explanation for relationship between imagery and performance

Psychoneuromuscular theory suggests that imagery causes the actual motor pattern to be rehearsed and therefore practised.

According to symbolic learning, imagery provides the opportunity to symbolically practise an event.

Goal setting explained

The role of goal setting as an effective strategy for increasing the commitment, effort, and perseverance required for sustained motivation and enhanced self-efficacy has been consistently demonstrated in the sport and exercise literature

What are the 2 different perspectives on goal setting (Duda, 1992)?

1. Ego orientation - a goal perspective that focuses on success and failure, with success often coming at the expense of other people. success versus failure.

2. Task orientation - a goal perspective in which individuals derive satisfaction from the sense of competence experienced as they improve; the focus is on effort and their own performance rather than that of others.

What are the 3 types of goals?

1. Outcome - goals that are concerned with the results or outcomes of events and usually involve comparisons to others. Results (involves comparison).

2. Performance - goals that describe an outcome that can be achieved independently of others' performances.

3. Process - goals that focus on specific processes that a performer will be concerned with during a performance.

Mindfulness and Acceptance-Based Interventions

Originate in meditative traditions. Highly aware of one's internal and external experiences in the context of an accepting, non-judgmental stance (Cardaciotto et al., 2008).

Modifying the relationship with internal experiences rather than trying to change or avoid them.

Physical Activity and Injury

An individual's response to injury is complex, and depends on:

• Nature and severity of injury, role/importance of sport in one's life

• Responses of the one's support network

• Injured athlete experiences range of emotions E.g., fear, anger, disbelief, depression.

Approaches/Models focus on either one of (for injuries)

1. Stages of reaction (like stages of dying): approaches assume that individuals will pass through a series of stages in a set order.

These approaches are frequently based on the stage model initially developed by Kübler-Ross (1969) to explain the experience of death and dying.

2. Cognitive appraisal (stress and coping). Psychologist has crucial role in the intervention and management of injuries.

Concussion

a bruising of the brain that can result in severe neurocognitive deficits, permanent disability, and even death.

second-impact syndrome

results when an athlete who has suffered a concussion returns to activity too soon and receives another blow to the head that can result in much greater trauma to the brain than that initially experienced.

post-concussion syndrome

symptoms experienced subsequent to a concussion, such as memory problems, difficulties in concentration, headaches, dizziness, and irritability.

Key features that make the psychological implications of concussion complex in comparison to other sport injuries

1. first is that, because concussion is an invisible injury, athletes who are concussed may appear normal to others.

2. second concern is that it may be difficult to the determine the etiology of symptoms and develop appropriate interventions given the overlap between post-concussive symptoms such as anxiety and depression and those due to injury such as anger and confusion.

3. unlike many sports injuries, concussion does not have a standard treatment approach.

4. consideration is that the standard treatment of rest may be ineffective and actually enhance the psychological response for some.

5. Finally, although for most individuals concussions will be resolved within 30 days, for about 30 percent of people symptoms, particularly those of a psychological nature, will continue for an extended period of time and directly affect the individual's quality of life.