Studied by 8 people
Memory
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
Storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
Sensory Memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Short term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
Long Term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
connectionism
views memories as products of interconnected neural networks
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
central executive
the part of working memory that directs attention and processing
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection
procedural memory
a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
George Miller
Found that short term memory has the capacity of about 7 (+/- 2) items.
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
Mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
Shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin
Proposed a model to explain our memory forming process Sensory=>Short Term=>Long Term
Semantic Memory
Encoding of facts, figures, and general knowledge, explicit
Episodic Memory
Events, occassions we have experienced, automatic
Perspective memory
remembering to remember (to do something in the future) usually explicit
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
Cerebellum
Plays important part in forming implicit memories
Flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
basil ganglia
structures in the forebrain that help to control movement
Recall
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
Recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood - good or bad
Serial Position effect
our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list
Anterograde Amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
Hernan Ebbinghaus
Studied durability of store memories
Proactive Interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
Repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
Misformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
Source Amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
Deja Vu
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
Elizabeth Loftus
Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
divergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)
Robert Sternberg
intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative)
5 components of creativity
Expertise
Imaginative thinking skills
A venturesome personality
Intrinsic motivation
A creative environment
Algorithm
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman
psychologists who researched heuristics and their effects on decision making
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
representative heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes
avaliability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
belief perseverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
Heuristics: Anchoring
relying on one piece of information, often the one that appeared first
functional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving
Language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
phoneme
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
Monphemes
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word
grammar
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
receptive language
ability to comprehend speech
productive language
ability to produce words
babbling stage
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
Cooing stage
at about 2 months the infant begins to make vowel-like sounds
one-word stage (holophrastic stage)
the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
two-word stage (telegraphic speech)
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).
Broca's area
Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
Wernicke's area
controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
linguistic determinism
Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think
language relativism
language only partially influences human thought and action
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
the idea that different languages create different ways of thinking
secondary language acquisition
conscious activity to try to encode rules, conventions and patterns of the second language
noam chomsky
theorist who believed that humans have an inborn or "native" propensity to develop language
eye contact
first stage of language acquisition
intelligence
mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
intelligence test
a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores
general intelligence (g)
a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.
L.L. Thurstone
proposed that intelligence consisted of 7 different primary mental abilities
savant syndrome
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing
Gardner's Eight Intelligences
Linguistic
Logical-mathematical
Musical
Spatial
Bodily-kinesthetic
Intrapersonal (self)
Interpersonal (other people)
Naturalist
grit
in psychology, grit is passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
fast mapping
the speedy and sometimes imprecise way in which children learn new words by tentatively placing them in mental categories according to their perceived meaning
Overgeneralization
applying grammar rules in areas they don't apply ("I writed a story")
Note 
Flashcard (21)