Unit 4 Part 1: Unit 4.1-4.3 Social Psychology

Attribution Theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

Attributions

people's explanations for why events or actions occur

Fundamental Attribution Error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Self-Serving Bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Individualist Cultures

cultures in which the self is regarded as autonomous, and individual goals and wishes are prized above duty and relations with others

USA, Canada

Collectivist Cultures

cultures in which people subordinate their personal goals to those of a stable community

Japan, China

Central Route to Persuasion

When people make decisions based upon factual information, logical arguments, and a thoughtful analysis of pertinent details.

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

When people make decisions based upon emotional appeals and incidental cues.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

Cognitive Dissonance

(Leon Festinger) an unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs

Social Facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

Social Inhibition

The tendency to perform tasks more poorly or more slowly in the presence of others

Social Loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Deindividualization

loss of self awareness and self restraint, typically in a sense of anomie (mob situation)

Stanford Prison Experiment

Philip Zimbardo's study of the effect of roles on behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to play either prisoners or guards in a mock prison. The study was ended early because of the "guards'" role-induced cruelty. Deindividualization

Bystander Effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Group Polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Normative Social Influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

Asch Conformity Experiment

Subjects shown a "standard line" and asked to pick the matching line from A, B, and C; other people in room purposely pick wrong line and subjects would follow. More likely to follow the larger the group. Less likely if there were other dissenters.

Obedience

Performance of an action in response to the direct orders of an authority or person of higher status.

In-group bias

the tendency to favor one's own group

Out-group bias

tendency to view all individuals outside our group as highly similar

Prejudice

preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience (feeling)

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members (action)

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people

Mere-Exposure Effect

the tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure

frustration-aggression hypothesis

the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger which can generate aggression

Reciprocity Norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Social Exchange Theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Scapegoat Theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

out-group homogeneity

tendency to view all individuals outside our group as highly similar

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

Prisoner's Dilemma

a particular "game" between two captured prisoners that illustrates why cooperation is difficult to maintain even when it is mutually beneficial

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Milgrim Experiment

an experiment devised in 1961 by Stanley Milgrim to see how far ordinary people would go to obey scientific authority figure (shock experiment)

reward theory of attraction

the theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events

optimistic explanatory style

a habitual tendency to attribute negative events to external, unstable, and specific causes, and positive events to internal, stable, and global causes

pessimistic explanatory style

a tendency to explain bad events that happen in a self-blaming manner, viewing their causes as global and stable

Downward Social Comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability

Upward Social Comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability

Relative Deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Social Trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

social contagion

imitative behavior involving the spread of behavior, emotions, and ideas

chameleon effect

The tendency for individuals to nonconsciously mimic the postures, mannerisms, facial expressions, and other behaviors of one's interaction partners.