Sociology Reading Guide Review

What is the scale and scope of sociology in terms of perspectives, methods, and topics? Why is it vast? Why is it called “the queen of the social sciences”?

Sociology spans from micro-level interactions (elevator behavior) to macro-level phenomena (rise and fall of empires). It integrates political science, economics, and culture, examining complex social structures. It includes philosophical social theory, qualitative research, and quantitative data analysis, making it broad and interdisciplinary

What is the relationship of sociology to Enlightenment social philosophy?

Enlightenment thinkers theorized the ‘good society’ normatively, asking questions about democracy and human rights. Sociology, which emerged later, is empirical—it studies societies as they are, not as they should be. Both are systematic but differ in approach.

Sociologists often argue that we should “think like a sociologist”. Name three things that are hallmarks of “thinking like a sociologist” and the kinds of explanations we particularly like.

Recognizing the power of social forces over individual choice, understanding how social structures shape behavior, and using sociological imagination to link personal experiences with broader social patterns

Give an example of a micro and a macro research question in sociology.

• Micro: How do people organize in an elevator? (Answer: They follow unspoken norms about space and interaction.)

• Macro: Why did China not conquer the world centuries ago? (Answer: Cultural insularity and centralized imperial power limited expansion.)

List some forms of data and/or research methods sociologists use.

Ethnography, surveys, government records, experiments, content analysis, interviews

Paradigm

Way of thinking about something

Civil Inattention

Ignore people while acknowledging that people are there where you acknowledge there’s nothing particularly interesting about them

Technological Determinism

Theory that technology drives social change and development

Socialism

Political and economic theory which advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole

• Not sociology

What did Durkheim say about “social facts”? How is this linked to ‘determinism’? In what respect is his theory of social facts not so deterministic sometimes?

Social facts are external, constraining forces shaping individual behavior. They include material aspects (laws, institutions) and non-material ones (morality, norms). While deterministic, they also allow for agency within structures.

What were the five kinds of social facts that Steven Lukes found in Durkheim? Can you give an example of each

1. Social rules and laws

2. Pragmatic necessities

3. Objective features of society beyond individual control

4. Psychological currents

5. Culture, norms, morals, obligations, duty, etc.

How are baby names a social fact?

• No material constrant

• Names depend on religion, ethnic group, income level, and politics

• Democrats are more likely to use Bible names while Republicans are more likely to come up with more unique names

  • Move away from what’s popular + imitation

Why did Durkheim claim that suicide demonstrated the power of “social facts” as set out in his Rules of Sociological Method? What was his typology? What social and demographic factors encouraged suicide or buffed individualls from suicideogenic currents in the population?

Used gov death records and looked at information for suicides to derive predictors using concomitant variation

• Being a widowed man

• Protestant

• Single

• Economic prosperity change (suicide happens when there’s wealth)

How are social integration and morality linked to suicide according to Durkheim?

Communities with clear regulations and morals have lower suicide rates

What did Marcel Mauss say in his book The Gift? How does gift giving reveal the power of society?

Gift giving establishes social relationships through reciprocal obligations—it’s an objective pattern and internalized (tacit knowledge, power of socialization)

• Give the gift

• Receive the gift

• Repay (eventually)

What is the problem/question of social action in social theory? What is the difference between voluntaristic and deterministic understanding? How do statistical/probabilistic efforts fudge on this or split the difference?

• Voluntaristic social action = people have agency and choose their actions based on their own will and motivation

• Deterministic social order = human behavior shaped by external factors like social structures, culture, or economy

  • probability-driven determinism

What is the problem of social order in social theory? What did Hobbes say about this in Leviathan? What is a more general and less analytic way of understanding or defining the problem of social order?

The problem of social order in social theory is how societies maintain stability and cooperation despite individual self-interest. Hobbes argued in Leviathan that without a strong central authority, life would be a chaotic "war of all against all." More generally, the problem of social order asks how people manage to live together peacefully and follow shared rules.

What are the common ways that sociologists solve the problem of social order when explaining everyday aspects of social life?

Sociologists explain social order through:

• culture

• rationality

• power

• social organization

Positivism

we can study society like we study the natural world (we have hypotheses and we can use the scientific method)

Probabilistic Causality

causes increase the likelihood of their effects

• smoking doesn’t cause lung cancer in every person who smokes, but it increases the probability of developing cancer

Audit Study

You send out CVs where you change one thing about their resume (control is a generic name)

Anomie

A state of normlessness where societal norms break down, leading to feelings of disconnection and aimlessness (Durkheim)

Tacit Knowledge

Unspoken, implicit knowledge that people use to navigate social life, like understanding how to behave in an elevator

What were the methods of the Asch “group conformity experiments,” "the Milgram “obedience to authority” experiment, and the Zimbardo “Stanford Prison” experiment. What did each demonstrate about the relative power of individuals versus society?

• Asch “Group Conformity” Experiment: Demonstrated that people conform to group pressure, even when the group is clearly wrong, by having participants match line lengths.

• Milgram “Obedience to Authority” Experiment: Showed that people will follow authority figures to extreme lengths, even administering harmful shocks to others when instructed.

• Zimbardo “Stanford Prison” Experiment: Revealed how social roles and situational power can lead ordinary people to engage in abusive behavior in a simulated prison setting.

Why do sociologists look to cults when it comes to exploring the social construction of reality? What are the methods cults use towards their ends in shaping the ‘reality’ of their members and ensuring their obedience? Mention a couple of cults as evidence of how they make normal people do ‘crazy’ things

Cults shape members’ reality through isolation, indoctrination, and loyalty tests, as seen in Jonestown and Heaven’s Gate

How is childhood shaped by social forces and culture?

Childhood is a social construct that emerged in modern history, shaping how societies define innocence, education, and family roles.

How is binary sex/gender classification shaped by social forces and culture?

Socially enforced categories that vary across cultures and are shaped by historical and institutional forces rather than purely biology.

How are ideas of divine intervention shaped by social forces and culture?

Beliefs in divine intervention are shaped by cultural narratives, reinforcing social cohesion and authority structures.

What is ‘cultural relativism’? How does this influence the attitude of the sociologist towards things that are considered evil, strange or illegal like support for Hitler in German in the 1930s, polygamy, arranged marriage or drug use?

• The idea that cultural practices must be understood in their own context rather than judged by external standards

Types of Society: What was a band society?

• subsistence hunting and gathering (no surplus)

• low division of labor

Types of Society: What was an ancient empire?

• emerge after neolithic revolution crops and animals (surplus)

• differentiated occupations

• slavery

• output ceiling

Types of Society: What is a modern society?

• steel, iron, coal, steam

• factories

• agricultural employment lowers

• global integration of economy by 1850

• great divergence saw western industrial economies generating higher outputs than ever before

Types of society: What is a postmodern society?

• knowledge economy + knowledge work

• information

• cultural products

• higher education

• simulation as real world maps onto cultural ideas + dreams + fantasies

Independent variable

This is the thing that does the explaining. It “causes” change in something else

Generalizability

Refers to the extent to which your findings can be said to apply more widely, in other social communities, contexts, times, or places

Observation (summary, pros/cons)

This is when the researcher just looks at what is going on without actually
interacting with people or talking to them (as in ethnography). They might make notes, draw a map or use a coding sheet (eg. the section reading on line formation). For example, we can code where people sit in a park and evaluate the use of space. Or how they touch in a nightclub. Good ...that it is non-responsive (when the researcher’ lurks’)

• A problem is that the meanings and motivations for the behavior have to be guessed. The approach can be thin on explanation
  compared to, for example, an ethnography of the same place

Survey (summary, pros/cons)

A questionnaire is administered where respondents answer questions, usually
selecting from predetermined answers that are numbered

• An advantage is that the results make for an instant data set (quantitative) when pooled. You can also ask about what you are
  specificallyinterested in (unlike using existing data such as government records)

• Problems include getting a representative sample of people due to (i) hard to find people like the undocumented, truckers and the homeless not being included; (ii) non-responders/declines (eg. like young men ...an increasing problem over time); (iii) socially approved responding (eg. hidden Trump vote, sex surveys). The sampling frame (eg, phone book) can also skew who you get. Thin meanings relative to qualitative methods too. People have to understand the questions and perhaps remember things they did in the past. Survey fatigue..drop out or give careless answers

What are the three key components of the gender order? Why is gender important for society?

1. androcentrism (male body and male life are the standard > creates work structures that privilege men)

2. agentic masculinity (men are active and women are passive)

3. devaluation of women (separation of women from men’s work or devaluing of women’s work)

• Gender roles evolve as a way to organize the necessary tasks done and helps us understand our roles in society

Distinguish sex, gender, and sexuality.

• Sex = chromosomal, biological, binary male or female

• Gender = how you identify

• Sexuality = your sexual preference in a partner

What did Judith Butler think about the distinction of sex and gender?

thought sex and gender were the same because sex is culturally constructed and isn’t binary—it’s a continuum

• Gender is something we “do”

What is a master status?

the first thing people think when they see you (sticky and most important attribute that you have), so gender is a master status (when you see people, you can definitely (most of the time) identify male or female)

What is hegemonic masculinity? What is emphasized femininity?

Hegemonic masculinity is the dominant male ideal (strong, assertive), while emphasized femininity is the submissive, nurturing counterpart.

What is “doing gender”? What kinds of things might a sociologist study when looking at this?

The everyday behaviors that reinforce gender norms, such as dress, speech, and mannerisms.

What are gender roles and how are they related to socialization?

Gender roles are social expectations about how to behave and appear (clothing, interaction styles, preferences). Socialization: We learn these since childhood. (eg. Barbie doll, pink gift for girls) and they are reinforced by ‘doing gender’ in everyday life. They are arbitrary (could be different – as cross cultural cases show)

What is the ‘second shift’? By and large what does sociological data say about this? Is the trend continuing or changing?

The unpaid domestic labor women perform after their paid work, reinforcing gender inequality in households

How do we know gender is a cultural construct?

Looking cross culturally we can see forms of gender that do not map onto sex. First up there is great cultural diversity in expectations, roles and norms for men and women. But there are also cases that are more radical. In India the hijra is a biological male who dresses performs dance
and sex acts like a woman. The nadle is found in the Navajo. They switch gender appearances and roles frequently

• Kimmel said that the ideal in 18th century masculinity was about concern, wit and courtesy, not Connell’s ‘hegemonic masculinity.

• Today there seem to be multiple
  masculinities available – eg, David Beckham v. The Rock. Women’s gender role is increasingly in
  the public sphere (formerly more ‘private sphere’). Things that look ‘biological’ like the way
  people walk or interact might actually be shaped by culture

Cult of Domesticity

Martha Stewart ideal where you can host guests, cook, take care of fam, and attend to sexual duties > tradwife

Vertical Segregation vs Horizontal Segregation

Horizontal segregation is when people are separated by the type of work they do, while vertical segregation is when people are separated by their status or position in the workplace.

Tokenism

When a small number of marginalized individuals are included in a group to give the illusion of diversity without structural change.

Glass Elevator

The phenomenon where men in female-dominated professions (e.g., nursing, teaching) rise to leadership faster than women

Pink Collar Occupations

Jobs traditionally associated with women, such as nursing, teaching, and secretarial work, often lower-paid and undervalued

What is the racial order and what do we find in a racial order?

The system of racial hierarchy that structures social, economic, and political relations

Race vs Ethnicity

Race is a socially constructed category based on perceived physical differences, while ethnicity relates to cultural identity and heritage

Who was WEB DuBois and what did he write?

A sociologist who introduced concepts like "double consciousness," analyzing how Black Americans navigate racial identity in a white-dominated society

Bright and Blurred Boundaries

Bright boundaries are rigid racial or social divisions, while blurred boundaries allow for more fluid identities and integration

Marked and unmarked categories

Dominant social groups (e.g., white, male) are "unmarked" (default), while marginalized groups (e.g., Black, female) are "marked" and more scrutinized

Typology of Power (Max Weber)

Includes traditional (custom-based), legal-rational (bureaucracy-based), and charismatic (personality-based) authority.

Foucault’s Vision of Power in Modernity

Power is diffused throughout society via institutions, surveillance, and knowledge systems (e.g., the panopticon).

Biopower

The regulation of populations through institutions that control bodies, health, and reproduction (Foucault)

Steven Lukes and Ritual and Politics

argued that rituals reinforce power and social cohesion by legitimizing authority and shaping collective beliefs. Political rituals, such as national anthems or public ceremonies, help maintain social order and reinforce ideological control.

William McNeil and Muscular Bonding

Physical activities like marching or dancing create social cohesion and collective identity

Randall Collins and Interaction Ritual

Repetitive social behaviors, like greetings, create emotional energy and reinforce group belonging.

Jeffrey Alexander and Social Performance

Everyday interactions function like performances, where individuals manage impressions to fit social roles.

George Herbert Meade (“I and me”)

Mead’s concept of the "I" and the "Me" explains how individuals develop self-identity through social interaction. The "I" represents spontaneous, unfiltered actions, while the "Me" is the internalized social norms that regulate behavior.

Charles Cooley (“Looking Glass Self”)

The idea that our self-concept is shaped by how we think others perceive us.

Herbert Blumer

Herbert Blumer, a key figure in symbolic interactionism, emphasized that society is constructed through social interactions where meanings are negotiated. He distinguished between behavior (automatic responses) and action(deliberate, meaning-based behavior).

Humanistic (“Accomplishment of social order”)

The humanistic perspective in sociology sees social order as something actively created by individuals rather than imposed from above. People construct shared meanings and norms through everyday interactions, ensuring stability without needing rigid control.

Definition of the situation

The shared understanding of a social setting that guides behavior and expectations.

Ground up social order

This concept suggests that social order emerges from individual interactions rather than being dictated by institutions or authorities. Instead of top-down enforcement, people negotiate and establish norms that guide behavior in various social settings.

Negotiated order

The idea that social order is constantly being redefined through interaction rather than being fixed.

Grounded theory

A research method where theories emerge from data rather than being imposed beforehand.

Theatrical Analogy

Erving Goffman’s dramaturgical approach compares social life to theater, where individuals perform roles based on societal expectations. People manage impressions through frontstage (public behavior) and backstage (private self) performances.

Near Poor

People who are slightly above the poverty line but still face economic insecurity

“Undeserving Poor”

A stereotype that portrays some poor individuals as lazy or morally deficient, influencing welfare policies

Concentrated Disadvantage and Neighborhood Effects

The clustering of poverty, unemployment, and crime in specific neighborhoods, limiting opportunities for residents.

“Reserve army of labor” and “Immiseration of the Proletariat” (Marx)

A surplus labor force that capitalists can exploit to suppress wages and increase profits.

Wisconsin Model

A sociological framework that examines how education, occupational status, and income shape social mobility.

Thomas Picketty and the 1%

Economist who highlighted the growing wealth inequality, where the top 1% controls a disproportionate share of resources.

Vertical vs Horizontal vs Intergenerational Mobility

Vertical mobility refers to moving up or down the class ladder, while horizontal mobility involves changing jobs within the same class.

Structural Mobility

Social mobility resulting from changes in the economy, such as shifts from manufacturing to service industries

Sexual Scripts

Societal expectations that guide sexual behavior, including norms around gender and relationships.

Heterosexual Double Standard

Men are praised for sexual activity, while women are judged for the same behavior.

Opportunity Structures

The societal conditions that make certain actions or achievements possible, such as education or job markets.

Ethology

The study of animal behavior that informs human social interactions, particularly in public spaces

Georg Simmel

A sociologist who explored urban life, social distance, and the impact of modernity on individual psychology.

Walter Benjamin

Walter Benjamin was a cultural theorist who examined how mass media and urban environments shape human perception. He introduced the Flâneur, an urban wanderer who observes city life, highlighting modernity’s impact on individual experience.

Flaneur and Urban Movement

A figure from urban sociology who wanders the city observing social life, associated with leisure and consumer culture

Michel de Certeau “drift”

Michel de Certeau’s concept of "drift" refers to spontaneous, unpredictable movement through urban spaces as a form of resistance against structured, controlled environments. It challenges imposed social norms by encouraging individual agency in navigating cities.

Ray Oldenberg “Third Space”

Informal social spaces like cafes or parks that foster community interaction outside of home and work

“Territories of the self” and Personal Space

Personal space management, including how people claim and defend physical and social spaces

Transactionalism

A theory that views social interactions as exchanges where people seek to maximize personal benefits.

Free Rider Problem

When individuals benefit from a collective good without contributing to its maintenance (e.g., public parks, voting).

Prisoner’s Dilemma

A game theory scenario showing how individuals acting in self-interest can lead to worse outcomes for all

Satiation (Homans) and Diminishing Returns

George Homans' concept of satiation suggests that repeated rewards lose their value over time, leading to diminishing returns in social interactions. This explains why behaviors that initially bring satisfaction, like praise or rewards, may become less effective when overused.

Tragedy of the Commons

A situation where individuals overuse a shared resource, leading to its depletion (e.g., overfishing, pollution).

Role Complementarity

The idea that social roles exist in relation to one another, such as doctor-patient or teacher-student.

Physician Role

A social role with expectations of impartiality, expertise, and a duty to care for patients.

Blue Zones

Regions where people live exceptionally long lives due to lifestyle factors like diet, exercise, and strong social ties.

The Good Death

A socially desirable way of dying, often involving family presence, acceptance, and tying up loose ends

Second Sleep

A historical pattern where people slept in two shifts, waking up in the middle of the night for activities before returning to bed.