AP Psychology Unit 3

Cognition

Mental activities associated with the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of knowledge. (unobservable)

Cognitive Psychology

The study of concept formation, problem solving, decision making, judgement formation, language, and memory. They study of both logical and illogical thinking.

Concept

Mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people that share common characteristics or qualities. 

Prototype

Objects or events that best represent a category. ex: Birds → penguin

Schemas

Basic thought structures about the world, objects, and events.

Assimilation

The interpretation of new experiences in terms of present schemes. (same stuff)

Accomodation

The modification of present schemes to fit with new experiences. (all change)

Algorithm

Step by step, methodical, logical rules or procedures that guarantee solving a aprticular problem; every possible solution explored.

Heuristic

“Rule of thumb”, short-cut strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently. Usually speedier but more error prone. No guarantee solution.

Insight

Sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem. Contrasts with strategy based solutions.

Confirmation Bias

tendency to selectively search for information that confirms/supports one’s preconceptions even when there’s strong evidence it’s wrong.

Fixation

Inability to see a problem from a new perspective.

Mental Set (fixation)

Tendency to persist with old patterns for problem solving even when they are not successful. A mindset of what has worked before, will work again.

Mental Set

A tendency to approach situations the same way because that way worked in the past.

Functional Fixedness

Tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual, customary functions, overlook new and different use for an object. Impediment to problem solving.

Representativeness Heuristic

Rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent or match, particular prototypes. Intuitively compare to our mental representation of that category, may lead one to ignore all other relevant information.

Availability Heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on how easily examples of the event come to mind, often seen or heard in media. If instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common, based on vividness, distinctiveness, recency.

Priming

An acuteness to stimuli becuase of exposure to a certain event or experience.

Framing

The way an issue is presented, how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements.

Gamblers Fallacy

The mistaken belief that past events can influence future events that are independent of them. ex: a gambler might believe that if a coin lands on heads twice in a row, it’s more likely to land on tails next.

Sunk Cost Fallacy

The belief that you should keep doing something because you’ve already invested in it, regardless of the outcome. ex: someone might keep watching a boring movie because they already paid for the ticket.

Creativity

The ability to produce new and valuable ideas.

Components of Creativity

Expertise: Well developed knowledge.

Imaginative thinking skills

A venturesome personality: tolerates ambiguity, takes risks, preserves in obstacles.

Intrinsic motivation

Creative environment

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the best single solution. Only one solution to the problem.

Divergent Thinking

Expanding the number of possible problem solutions. More than one way to solve a problem.

Executive Functioning

Responsible for controlling cognitive processes like reasoning, problem solving, attention, organizing, planning, and timing. These controls are responsible for the management and regulation of mental processes.

Natural Concepts

Created “naturally” through your experiences and can be developed from either direct or indirect experiences.

Artificial Concept

Defined by a specific set of characteristics. Enhances understanding of a topic by building on one another.

Role Schema

Makes assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave.

Event schema (cognitive script)

Set of behaviors that can feel like a routine.

Trial and Error

Continue trying different solutions until the problem is solved.

Working backwards

Begin solving the problem by focusing on the end result.

Anchoring bias

When you focus on one piece of information when making a decision or solving a problem.

Hindsight Bias

The event you just experienced was predictable, even though it wasn’t.

Representative Heuristic

You make a decision'/judgement based on your perception of the similarity of the thing to your existing stereotypes and prior beliefs.

Availability Heuristic

You make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is that readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision.

Overconfidence

A tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgements. Associated with happiness and making tough decisions easier.

Exaggerated Fear

Tendency for exaggerated fear about how things may happen.

Belief Bias

The tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning sometimes by making invalid conclusions.

Belief Perserverance

Our tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence.