hbs midterm flashcards

What is the difference between physical therapy and occupational therapy?

Physical therapy focuses on general movement, while occupational therapy focuses on actions associated with daily living.

What bodily systems are involved in muscle fatigue?

Muscle fatigue involves the Central Nervous System (CNS), Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), muscle units, and fibers.

What are the energy sources depleted during muscle fatigue?

Depletion of energy stores, including ATP (adenosine triphosphate), glucose in the blood, and glycogen in muscle fibers.

How can muscle activity be monitored and measured over time?

A gas pressure sensor, EKG (electrocardiogram for heart signals), and EMG (electromyography for muscle and nerve health) can be used.

How are electrodes generally placed for an EMG on the lower arm in an experimental setup?

Electrodes are placed 5\text{cm} and 10\text{cm} away from the medial epicondyle for the lower arm, with another on the upper arm. The elbow should be at a 90^\circ angle, and baseline data is needed beforehand.

What are the common units for recording grip strength and EMG?

Grip strength is recorded in kPa (kilopascals), while EMG is recorded in millivolts (mV).

Define mindfulness.

Mindfulness is a cognitive skill that involves sustaining mental awareness.

What is a joint?

A joint is a junction where bones meet. The only exception is the hyoid bone, which is not connected to other bones by a joint.

What are the three main types of joints?

1. Fibrous joint: fixed, immovable, made of collagen. 2. Cartilaginous joint: allows some motion, found between articulating bones, made of hyaline cartilage. 3. Synovial joint: most common, very moveable, contains synovial fluid to prevent friction.

What is the meniscus?

A c-shaped pad of cartilage found in synovial joints, such as the knee, that helps absorb shock.

What is the difference between a tendon and a ligament?

A tendon attaches muscle to bone, while a ligament attaches bone to bone.

Describe the main movements at joints.

1. Abduction: movement away from the body. 2. Adduction: movement towards the body. 3. Circumduction: movement in a circular path. 4. Rotation: movement around an axis. 5. Flexion/Extension/Hyperextension: Flexion decreases the angle of a joint, extension increases it, and hyperextension is extension performed beyond the joint's normal range of motion.

List and describe the types of synovial joints.

1. Pivot joint: bone articulates within a ring, moves about an axis (e.g., atlantoaxial joint/neck joint). 2. Hinge joint: hinge-shaped, like a door hinge, associated with flexion and extension (e.g., ankle, knee). 3. Saddle joint: saddle-shaped (e.g., carpometacarpal/thumb joint). 4. Plane 'gliding' joint: slides flatly against another, limited movement due to strong ligaments (e.g., intercarpal/intertarsal joints). 5. Condyloid/Ellipsoid joint: movement without rotation, has an oval shape (e.g., radiocarpal/metacarpophalangeal/knuckle joints). 6. Ball and socket/Spheroidal joint: highly flexible (e.g., hip joint).

What is the difference between joint mobility and joint stability?

1. Mobility: a joint's ability to move freely within a given range of motion; injury decreases ROM. 2. Stability: a joint's ability to restrict movement; relates to weight-bearing abilities.

How can joint mobility and stability be improved?

Mobility can be improved through stretches and physical therapy, while stability can be improved by strengthening muscles and ligaments surrounding a joint.

What are the three types of cartilage in the body and where are they found?

1. Fibrous cartilage (fibrocartilage): found in intervertebral discs and the pubic symphysis. 2. Hyaline cartilage (articular cartilage): covers condyles, involved in bending/straightening and weight-bearing stress. 3. Elastic cartilage: found in the ear, epiglottis, and respiratory tract.

What tool is used to measure range of motion (ROM)?

A goniometer measures range of motion.

What is Range of Motion (ROM) and how is it assessed?

ROM assesses joint motion and provides a measure of overall flexibility. It is measured using a goniometer.

What happens when a ligament is injured or torn?

When a ligament is injured or torn, the joint becomes unstable.

How is a goniometer used to measure joint angle?

The fulcrum (axis) is placed over the joint. One arm remains stationary, while the other arm measures the angle of the limb. 0^\circ typically represents the natural extension of the joint, and movement progresses towards 180^\circ when the joint flexes. A typical moving arm measurement should be between 55^\circ to 0^\circ.

What are the steps for accurately measuring Range of Motion?

1. Consider the limb's path to its final position, ensuring the measured angle corresponds. 2. Stabilize the body so only the target joint moves. 3. Gently move the subject's limb through the desired ROM (passive movement) to estimate ROM and demonstrate motion. 4. Instruct the subject to actively move the limb to its natural endpoint without straining (active movement) to show their actual ROM.

Define the following directional terms: Medial, Lateral, Anterior, Posterior, Proximal, Distal.

1. Medial: towards the midline of the body. 2. Lateral: away from the midline of the body. 3. Anterior: towards the front of the body. 4. Posterior: towards the back of the body. 5. Proximal: closer to the point of attachment or origin. 6. Distal: farther from the point of attachment or origin.

Describe the Anterior Drawer Test.

With the knee flexed at 90^\circ, the proximal tibia is pulled towards the physical therapist. Excessive looseness in the knee joint indicates a positive result, suggesting damage to the anterior cruciate ligament.

Describe the Posterior Drawer Test.

With the knee flexed at 90^\circ, the tibia is pushed away from the physical therapist relative to the femur. Excessive looseness in the knee joint, allowing the femur to slide anteriorly, indicates a positive result, suggesting damage to the posterior cruciate ligament.

Describe the Valgus Stress Test (Left Leg).

With the knee flexed approximately 30^\circ and the femur fixed, the tibia is rotated laterally (away from the body), placing the knee in a valgus position. Excessive looseness allowing the knee joint and femur to slide away indicates a positive test result, suggesting medial collateral ligament instability.

Describe the Varus Stress Test (Left Leg).

With the knee flexed approximately 30^\circ and the femur fixed, the knee is subjected to joint laxity. Excessive looseness indicates a positive test result, suggesting lateral collateral ligament instability.

What is joint laxity (excessive looseness)?

Joint laxity refers to excessive looseness in a joint when stressed, which often indicates a positive test result in orthopedic assessments.

Who are orthopedic surgeons?

Physicians who specialize in treating musculoskeletal conditions such as scoliosis or traumatic injuries like broken bones.

What is the mnemonic device for remembering Valgus and Varus?

A mnemonic device is a memory aid. For Valgus and Varus: Distal (more) lateral means valgus. Distal (more) medial means varus.

What is kinesiology tape (KT Tape) and its purpose?

KT Tape is an assistive device that allows connective tissue around affected muscles, tendons, or ligaments to move with the body while promoting free blood or lymphatic fluid flow. Its goals include improving circulation, supporting muscles, draining excess fluid, and promoting healing by stimulating mechanoreceptors.

What are mechanoreceptors?

Receptors on the skin and organs that detect touch sensations, provide the sensation of touch, stimulate reflexes, and provide electrical stimulation.

When should Kinesiology Tape NOT be used?

KT Tape should not be used if the patient has sutures/an open wound post-surgery, Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT), or an allergy to the adhesive.

What are the two main goals of Kinesiology Tape?

1. Provide mechanical support to the joint, similar to a brace. 2. Promote lymphatic drainage by facilitating fluid movement back into the circulatory system.

Define Ankle Dorsiflexion.

Moving your feet so that your toes are closer to your knee.

Define Ankle Plantar Flexion.

The extension of your ankle so that the foot points down and away from the leg.

Define Ankle Extension.

Movement where the foot is pointed away from the leg, like when standing on your tiptoes.

Describe the hierarchy in a lab setting.

1. PI (Principal Investigator): Decides the research goal and is the lead researcher. 2. Lab Manager: Oversees the lab and operations for smooth functioning. 3. Lab Techs: Perform the hands-on work. 4. Postdoc Students: Often carry out research tasks under supervision.

What is the primary difference in how the nervous system and endocrine system communicate?

The nervous system uses electrical signals, while the endocrine system uses hormones and chemical signals.

What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?

The Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

What comprises the Central Nervous System (CNS)?

The brain and spinal cord.

What comprises the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

Nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord.

What are the three distinct outer structures of the brain?

The Cerebrum, Cerebellum, and Brain Stem.

What is the Cerebrum and its primary functions?

The cerebrum is the most anterior part of the brain, divided into two hemispheres. It is responsible for the integration of neural and sensory functions, as well as voluntary action in the body.

What are the four lobes of the cerebrum and their primary functions?

1. Temporal lobe: processes pain and auditory stimuli, emotions, memory, hearing, retains visual memory, processes and remembers emotion. 2. Frontal lobe: largest area, develops into a person's twenties/thirties, responsible for voluntary movement, expression, language, cognition, planning, personality, behavior, and emotion. 3. Parietal lobe: senses touch, spatial processing, language, memory, interprets input from hearing, sight, touch, smell. 4. Occipital lobe: smallest lobe, responsible for visual perception (color, size, distance, depth), visual and short-term memory, remembering visual stimuli (e.g., faces).

What are the Motor Cortex and Sensory Cortex responsible for?

1. Motor Cortex (in the frontal lobe): Nerve impulses initiate voluntary muscle activity. 2. Sensory Cortex (in the parietal lobe): Receives sensory input signals, critical for the five senses.

What is the Cerebellum?

Located at the back of the skull in vertebrates, often called the 'little brain.' It coordinates and regulates muscular activity (e.g., balance and movement) and selects cognitive activity. It contains most of the brain's neurons despite being only 10\text{%} of its total weight.

What is the Brain Stem and its components/functions?

The central trunk of the brain that connects to the spinal cord, composed of the Medulla Oblongata, Midbrain, and Pons. It is responsible for vision, hearing, motor control, alertness, temperature regulation, breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

• Medulla Oblongata: controls heartbeat, respiration, and blood pressure.
• Midbrain: involved in motor control, eye control, and processing of vision and hearing.
• Pons: handles unconscious processes like sleeping and breathing, and connects the forebrain to the hindbrain.

What are the main inner brain structures and their functions?

1. Thalamus: Egg-shaped 'information relay station' in the middle brain; carries sensory information from sensory organs (except smell) to the cerebrum for processing. 2. Hypothalamus: Controls body temperature, hunger, thirst, appetite, and sleep processes; controls the pituitary gland; coordinates with the autonomic nervous system. 3. Corpus Callosum: Nerve fibers connecting the left and right brain hemispheres, allowing them to communicate and process sensory, motor, and cognitive signals. 4. Amygdala: Bundle of cells adjacent to the hypothalamus, processes emotions related to fear and stress. 5. Hippocampus: Located in the temporal lobe, vital for learning and long-term memory.

What are Gyri and Sulci, and what is their function in the cerebral cortex?

Gyri are the elevations, and sulci are the depressions found on the cerebral cortex of the cerebrum. Their function is to increase the surface area of the cerebral cortex, allowing more neurons to be packed into the brain and forming brain divisions.

What are the components of 'grey matter' and 'white matter' in the cerebral cortex?

The outer portion of the cortex is made of 'grey matter,' which contains the cell bodies of neurons. The inner portion is made of 'white matter,' which contains the axons of neurons.

What are ventricles in the brain and their function?

Ventricles are spaces within the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid serves as a cushion and shock absorber, and aids in chemical communication between neurons.

Describe the general timeline of human brain development.

The brain develops most rapidly during the first three years of life. It remodels itself significantly during adolescence, continuing into the mid-20s, and reaches peak cognitive ability between 20 and 40 years of age.

What do the Radial nerve and Ulnar nerve stimulate?

1. Radial nerve: stimulates the triceps brachii, brachioradialis, and extensor carpi radialis longus. 2. Ulnar nerve: stimulates the flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor digitorum profundus, and hypothenar muscles.

What is the largest part of the brain, and what is its outer layer called?

The Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, and its outer layer is called the cerebral cortex, which is 'grey matter'.

What are the functions of the Optic nerves, Optic chiasm, and Olfactory bulbs?

1. Optic nerves: transmit visual information (color, brightness, contrast) from the retina to the brain. 2. Optic chiasm: the part where optic nerves join and fibers from the nasal retina cross to the optic tract on the opposite side, enabling vision from one side of both eyes to be appreciated by the occipital cortex of the opposite side. 3. Olfactory bulbs: rounded masses of tissue containing nerve cells involved in the sense of smell.

Is the idea of being 'left-brained' or 'right-brained' accurate?

No, this is a myth. The two hemispheres of the brain share 96\text{%} functional similarity, and most differences are biases, not individual capabilities. The one exception is that in most individuals, the left hemisphere controls speech.

What insight did the case of Henry Molaison (H.M.) provide?

H.M. underwent surgery to remove his hippocampus and amygdala to control seizures. While successful in controlling seizures, he was left with permanent amnesia, unable to form new memories, though he retained his motor skills. This highlighted the role of these structures in memory formation.

What insight did the case of Phineas Gage provide?

Phineas Gage had a large rod penetrate his frontal lobe, which drastically changed his personality. This case helped scientists make a connection between brain damage and changes in personality.

What is Broca's Area and its function?

Broca's Area is a region in the left frontal lobe. Its discovery, through patients like Mr. Tan who had an inability to speak due to lesions in this area, revealed its responsibility for speech production.

What are the primary signaling cells of the nervous system and their main components?

Neurons are the primary signaling cells. They send and receive electrical and chemical signals and vary in size but all have a cell body, axon, and dendrites.

What are Glial cells and their role?

Glial cells (neuroglia) provide protection and maintain homeostasis for neurons. They do not have axons or dendrites and cannot generate action potentials. Malfunctions can cause brain tumors, and damage to myelin sheaths (produced by Schwann cells) causes conditions like multiple sclerosis.

List the parts of a neuron and their functions.

1. Dendrite: responsible for neuron-to-neuron communication (receiver). 2. Axon: nerve impulse travels down the axon. Insulated by myelin sheaths to speed up electrical impulses. 3. Nodes of Ranvier: gaps in the myelin sheath, serving as outlets for ions to diffuse out. 4. Axon terminal: 'the bulb thing'; houses neurotransmitters, responsible for communication between neurons. 5. Nucleus: contains the cell's DNA, control center. 6. Cell body: provides energy, maintains neuron structure. 7. Synapse: the junction between the dendrites of the receiving neuron and the axon terminal of the sending neuron.

What are the types of neurons based on form and where are they found?

1. Pseudounipolar neurons: emerge as bipolar but become unipolar embryologically; found in sensory ganglia of the spinal cord. 2. Unipolar neurons: most commonly found in the CNS of invertebrates. 3. Bipolar neurons: found in the retina and olfactory system. 4. Multipolar neurons: most common type; found in the CNS and autonomic ganglia.

What are the types of neurons based on function?

1. Sensory neurons: activated by sensory input from the environment, communicate information to interneurons. Mostly pseudounipolar, but can be unipolar or bipolar. 2. Interneurons: process and convey sensory information to motor neurons. Mostly multipolar. 3. Motor neurons: directly control muscle movements, transmit impulses from the spinal cord to skeletal and smooth muscle. Mostly multipolar.

What is Neuropharmacology?

The study of the action of drugs—including medicines and illegal drugs—on the nervous system.

What do neurons require to convey information, and how is electricity generated?

Neurons require action potentials (electrical impulses) to convey information. Electricity is generated by the sudden reversal of the overall charge inside and outside the cell, producing a nerve impulse along the cell membrane.

How do ion channels contribute to generating an action potential?

Potassium and sodium channels act as 'one-way doors' for ions to diffuse through the lipid bilayer. The potassium channel moves K^+ ions from the cell interior to the exterior, and the sodium channel moves Na^+ ions from the cell exterior to the interior. Ions move naturally from areas of high concentration to low concentration.

What is the function of the sodium-potassium pump?

The sodium-potassium pump is a specialized protein that uses ATP (energy) to move 3\text{ }Na^+ ions extracellularly for every 2\text{ }K^+ ions intracellularly. This maintains a resting potential where the outside of the cell is more positively charged than the inside, until the neuron receives a signal.

Describe the steps of action potential generation within a single neuron.

1. Signal received: The neuron receives a signal. 2. Depolarization: Sodium channels open and potassium channels close, allowing Na^+ ions into the cell. This makes the intracellular space more positive and the extracellular space more negative. This electrical signal propagates along the axon. 3. Repolarization: Potassium channels open and sodium channels close, allowing K^+ ions out of the cell. This makes the intracellular space more negative and the extracellular space more positive. 4. Resting Potential: The sodium-potassium pump restores the cell to its negative intracellular resting potential.

How do Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and Tetraethyl Ammonium (TEA) affect neural activity?

TTX and TEA inhibit sodium and potassium channels, respectively. Researchers use these chemicals to shut down nervous or muscular electrical activity, study action potential propagation, or isolate the effect of other signaling molecules.

Describe the process of action potential communication from neuron-to-neuron at the synapse.

1. An action potential travels to the axon terminal of the presynaptic cell. 2. Calcium channels open, allowing Ca^{2+} into the cell. 3. Ca^{2+} causes vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane, releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. 4. Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptor proteins on the postsynaptic neuron. 5. Specific ion channels are activated in the receiving cell's membrane, generating a new action potential. If the signal passes to a muscular gland, the synapse is called the neuromuscular junction, activating muscle cell contraction.

What is Acetylcholine's role as a neurotransmitter?

Involved in muscle contraction, learning, and memory.

What is Dopamine's role as a neurotransmitter?

Plays a role in pleasure, motivation, mood, attention, memory, and movement.

What is GABA's role as a neurotransmitter?

Gamma-aminobutyric acid is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter of the Central Nervous System, essential for signal regulation and normal brain function.

What is Glutamate's role as a neurotransmitter?

The primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, present in more than 90\text{%} of all brain synapses.

What are Epinephrine (adrenaline) and Norepinephrine's roles as neurotransmitters?

Excitatory neurotransmitters released during times of stress, playing a role in the fight-or-flight response to increase arousal and attention. Epinephrine notably increases alertness, breathing, and heart rate, while norepinephrine increases blood pressure by constricting blood vessels.

What is Serotonin's role as a neurotransmitter?

Involved in the regulation of mood and sleep, and also aids in digestion, nausea, wound healing, blood clotting, and sexual desire.

What is the difference between an inhibitory and an excitatory neurotransmitter?

1. Inhibitory neurotransmitters: bind to receptors on the receiving neuron, causing its membrane potential to become more negative (hyperpolarization). 2. Excitatory neurotransmitters: bind to receptors on the receiving neuron, causing its membrane potential to become more positive (depolarization).

Describe a Drug Agonist and provide an example.

A drug that mimics a neurotransmitter and activates its receptor (e.g., Morphine).

Describe an Antagonist drug and provide an example.

A drug that blocks a receptor and prevents the neurotransmitter from binding (e.g., Diphenhydramine).

Describe an Inverse Agonist drug and provide an example.

A drug that binds to the same receptor as an agonist but produces an opposite effect to the neurotransmitter (e.g., Opioids or Antihistamines, depending on specific context of their inverse agonism).

Describe a Reuptake Inhibitor drug and provide an example.

A drug that prevents the reabsorption of neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft, thus increasing their concentration and duration of action (e.g., Cocaine).

What is a Reflex?

An automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus that does not reach the level of consciousness, controlled by the human nervous system.

What is a Reaction?

A thoughtful, voluntary response to external stimuli in which the brain processes the nerve impulse before reacting.