AICE Marine Final

Topic 1: Scientific Method

1. For vast experiments, data should be collected numerous times (more times, more accurate)

2. only 1 variable(independent) should be changed, others should be controlled. Dependent variable is dependent on what you changed(independent)- what you measure in experiment.

3. quantitive results

4. Theory- scientific theory supported by # of testable statements, used as general principle to explain phenomenon. Intended to be accurate, predictive models of world.

Topic 1: Scientific Method

Outlining lab based on experiment

-state amount of containers

- state constants (min. 3) (light, temp, salinity)

- whats amount of independent variable?

- state how often you'll take measurements(weekly)

-state duration

-state method to calculate results(counting/quadrant method)

-state REPEAT and calculate MEAN

Topic 1: Scientific Method

Describing results

-state most according to data

- state least

manipulate data by finding range

- state increases, decreases , increases then decreases

Topic 1: Scientific Method

Working w/ graphs

creating:

-use ENTIRE graph

-label x/y with units

-use correct intervals (equally spaced)

-use correct scale by finding range and dividing by total boxes

-line of best fit- use ruler to draw connecting as many points. doesn't have to go through 0

Topic 1: Scientific Method

Answering questions about graphs

-identify interval value on axis

-state relationship- 2 or more lines on graph, state the connection (temp. increases, ocean acidity decreases)

Topic 1: Scientific Method

What is needed to turn experiment into theory

-rigorous testing

-repeated testing by many other scientists

-scientist should get similar results (exact quantity can vary a little) but same conclusions. NO exceptions

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

symbiosis

relationship where both species benefit. ex: coral/zooanthellae, tube worms/chem. bacteria

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

parasitism

relationship where parasite benefits at expense of other, the host. host is usually harmed. parasites get nutrients from them.

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

producer

Green plants, algae and some types of bacteria, able to synthesise organic substances from simple inorganic compounds, using light energy from the Sun, in the process of photosynthesis. That means producers take in carbon dioxide and water and in the presence of sunlight produce glucose and oxygen.

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

biodiversity

# of diff. species present and range of habitats/ecosystems. coral reefs have high biodiversity w many species present.sandy shores have low biodiversity, few species

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

ecosystem

living organisms and physical/chem. factors that influence them

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

population

orgs of SAME SPECIES able to interbreed w 1 another

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

community

all DIFF species living in habitat at same time

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

habitat

place where orgs live

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

trophic levels

feeding levels in food chain/web. producers are in 1st tropical eval, primary consumers in 2nd level, and secondary consumers in 3rd level

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

food chains

shows sequence of orgs feeding on other orgs

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

arrows in food chain

rep. transfer of energy and BIOMASS

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

In food web be able to:

a. Name producers, primary, secondary, tertiary or apex predators.

b. Explain what arrows between the organisms represent

c. Pick out a prey or predator of an organism on the food web.

d. State how many trophic levels are represented in a food chain.

e. Describe relationships between two organisms on a food chain (ex. Whether they are predator or prey, both eat same prey or both are predators of an organism.

f. Be able to explain the role of bacteria in most food webs. (Be careful not the same as chemosynthetic bacteria)

g. Be able to explain two arrows between organisms.

h. Draw in arrows and a box with an organism when given the organism

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

energy source in most food webs

sunlight

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

energy source for hydrothermal vent

hydrogen sulphide

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

effects of upwelling on orgs in a food web

increases nutrients which increases productivity (# of producers) and THEREFORE INCREASES PRIMARY CONSUMERS AND SO ON

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

predator

an organism who hunts and kills prey for food. E.g. tuna and shark

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

prey

organism that is hunted for food. E.g. tuna

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

predator/prey relationship

# of prey is always more than the # of predators and increases first. The numbers of predators lags behind the numbers of prey organisms. Then the number of prey decrease first followed shortly after the decrease in the number of predators also with lag time. Example: Tuna & Sardines; Shark & Tuna (state which is the predator and which is prey)

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

To calculate MEAN change on graph

use SLOPE formula and use for rate of change problems

Topic 2: Marine ecosystems/biodiversity

shoaling

a large group of same species of fish swimming in a coordinated or synchronized way. Ex. tuna, sardines, and anchovies.

why is shoaling advantageous to tuna/sardines??

First, define shoaling.

Second, State overall benefits to either to be:

Third, state benefits to predator.

Fourth, state benefits to prey.

benefits of shoaling to both prey/predator

- Easier to move through currents/hydrodynamic efficiency

- Easier for navigation

- Better chance of find a mate therefore better chances of reproduction

benefits of shoaling to predators

- More eyes to sense prey/better chance to find prey

- Better chances of catching prey

benefits of shoaling to prey

- More eyes to spot predators/less chance of being eaten

- Try to intimidate predators by disguising or appearing to be bigger than they are.

- Send out fear chemicals to warn others of predators

- Confuse predators in bait balls

succession

When one organism takes over/replaces another.

Tevnia and chemosynthetic bacteria are the pioneer species.

tube worms, started as Tevnia then replaced by Riftia

why do extreme/unstable environments have low biodiversity?

1st, define the term, biodiversity. 2nd, give the examples of an ecosystem that extreme (hydrothermal vents and unstable (sandy, rocky, and muddy shores). 3rd, give examples of each environment with organism's adaptation to that environment. List at least 3 organisms.

conditions of extreme environments

low pH, high temp., low oxygen and high salinity

have limited resources

ii. Hydrothermal vents are an extreme environment.

iii. Example of organism at a hydrothermal vent is chemosynthetic bacteria

conditions of unstable environment

- sandy environments where there is sand slippage; organisms are easily washed away.

- Orgs ( crabs, worms & mussels) burrow to avoid being washed/swept away. They are also exposed to air, so desiccation can occur. Orgs must adapt.

why do high biodiversity environments have narrow niches??

if niches overlap, individuals will die out. Narrow niche = reduces overlap = reduces competition. Example: coral reef

Why do ecosystems like coral reefs have high biodiversity and narrow niches as opposed to Open Ocean?

1st define niche, narrow niche (specialized) and biodiversity. Give example of organism's with each niche.

Niche - an organism's role in its environment.

- Generalized - an organism having a wide range of food and habitat. Ex. shark

- Specialized - an organism that has a narrow food requirement and lives in a specific habitat. Ex. Butterfly fish

Topic 3: Energetics of Marine ecosystems

photosynthesis

process by which sunlight energy is used to synthesize/make/ convert to glucose by a producer. Examples are phytoplankton/algae/zooxanthellae.

chemosynthesis

process by which chemical energy (hydrogen sulfide) is used to synthesize/make/ convert to glucose by bacteria. Example is chemosynthetic bacteria at hydrothermal vents.

productivity

rate at which biomass is produced, often measured in terms of energy capture per unit area (or per unit volume in the case of aquatic ecosystems) per year. Such as gC/m2/yr or MJ per year.

photosynthesis/ chemosynthesis/productivity state...

1. WHO does it (photo-algae, chemo- chemosynthetic bacteria)

2. WHAT is USED in process (photo- sun, chemo- hydrogen sulphide, both -CO2)

3. WHAT is MADE (both-glucose)

4. WHERE

factors that affect productivity

- Sunlight in regards to season difference and latitude

- Temperature which is affected by sunlight. There is an optimal temperature for productivity.

- Nutrients which can also change seasonally due to melting of ice and changes in amounts of precipitation. Remember along the shore nutrients are more abundant than open ocean.

- CO2 - concentration of carbon dioxide

- pH - seawater is normally about 8.1 (pre Industrial revolution it was 8.2).

Global warming has caused ocean acidification. Near the shore, toxins can cause drops in pH.

ecological pyramids

use stepped pyramids w scale of specific proportions. LABEL Type of org at that level e.g producer, primary consumer, etc.

2. Example of organism at that trophic level e.g. phytoplankton, zooplankton, etc.

3. Number the trophic levels on the side of the pyramid: number the trophic levels in order from bottom to top.

biomass/ #S pyramid

the 1st trophic level should be slightly smaller than the 2nd. The rest, should progressively get smaller after the 2nd

energy pyramid

1. Count the # of boxes available (example: 60 boxes).

2. Take the total amount of energy at the producer level and divide by #1 (12,000 / 60 = 200). Fill in the ENTIRE bottom level of the graph for the producers.

3. This # will be your value for each box (so each box on your graph will represent 200 units of energy).

4. Now, take the second level amount and divide by the value to find out how many blocks to draw (2400 / 200 = 12 boxes). 4. Continue this for all other levels.

how is energy loss

1. sun to producers

2. within food chain (90% lost at each level)

Why is most of the energy from the sun, not used by producers?

through reflection, light only reaches the surface (it doesn't penetrate down deep), Inefficiency of photosynthesis, not all wavelengths of visible light are absorbed by producer.

State three ways by which energy is lost from the food chain.

heat in respiration, excretion, uneaten parts.

NPE

allows ecologist to quantify how efficiently organisms of a particular trophic level incorporate the energy they receive into biomass.

NPE = net consumer productivity/assimilation x 100

Net consumer productivity

energy content available to the organisms of the next trophic level.

assimilation

biomass (energy content generated per unit area) of the present trophic level after accounting for the energy lost due to incomplete ingestion of food..

Calculate the PERCENTAGE OF ENERGY OR INCIDENT OF LIGHT

efficiency (%) = output/input *100%

Calculate HOW MANY UNITS OF ENERGY

output= % efficiency * input

how do herbivores loose energy??

heat from respiration, losses in urine and undigested plant material in feces

Topic 4: Nutrient Cycles

Nutrient

any substance assimilated by living things that promote growth, including # of organic/inorganic compounds (nitrogen/phosphorus) used by producers in primary production

nutrient use

in marine orgs for bones/shells and incorporated into reefs

nutrients replenished

enter oceans by:

- runoff from land, ions from rock, ag waste/sewage/fertilizer

-dissolving from atmosphere (can occur from nitrogen/carbon in form of CO2)

- upwelling brings nutrients back to surface

nutrients enter food chains

assimilated by producers (phytoplankton) then passed to consumers

nutrients lost from food chains

-released through excretion/waste

-when org dies and decomposes

-sink to sea floor

-harvesting by humans

limiting nutrients

nitrate and phospate

nitrogen bio use

to make proteins/amino acids

carbon bio use

to make all organic materials, glucose, DNA/rna

magnesium bio use

to make chlorophyll

calcium bio use

to make bones, corals, shells, forms carbonates

phosphorus bio use

to make DNA/RNA, bones/teeth, phospholipids

calcium facts

ABIOTIC -

i. Calcium is weathered from sedimentary rock, limestone containing calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

ii. Brought into the sea by runoff from land/rivers

iii. Present in water as calcium ions

BIOTIC -

iv. As calcium ion it is used by marine organisms such as fish for bones, coral uses to make coral skeleton/polyp (corallite) and mollusks use it to make up their shells.

ABIOTIC -

v. Once an organism dies and sinks to seafloor

vi. Calcium can be compressed back into limestone.

vii. Land can be uplifted or sea level may fall which will expose the rocks on land and allow weather and erosion to remove calcium from the rock.

viii. Can also be brought up by upwelling.

phosphorus facts

ABIOTIC:

i. Phosphorus is weathered from sedimentary rock, apatite containing calcium phosphates.

1. It is brought into the sea by runoff from land/rivers

2. Present in water as phosphate ion.

BIOTIC:

ii. As phosphate ions, it enters marine organisms such as fish, to be used for bones/teeth, DNA/RNA, ATP/ADP.

OUT OF BIOTA, to ABIOTIC:

iii. Once an organism dies and sinks to seafloor

iv. Phosphorus can be compressed back into apatite.

v. Land can be uplifted or sea level may fall which will expose the rocks on land and allow weather and erosion to remove phosphate from the rock.

vi. Can also be brought up by upwelling.

nitrogen facts

ABIOTIC -

i. Runoff from agricultural waste/chemical/fertilizer/pollutants wash into sea as nitrates

ii. Atmospheric Dissolution - dissolves nitrogen as N2 which will be fixed by nitrogen fixing bacteria to ammonia, NH3 then by the process of nitrification done by bacteria convert ammonia into nitrite NO2 then nitrate, NO3

*Note: nitrogen must be assimilated by algae/phytoplankton as nitrate.

BIOTIC -

iii. Assimilating by algae/phytoplankton

iv. Consumed by primary consumers, secondary, etc.

v. When either the producer or consumer dies, nitrates sink to the sea floor

ABIOTIC -

vi. Brought up by upwelling to be re-assimilated.

carbon facts

ABIOTIC

i. Does not dissolve into the water from the atmosphere as Carbon ... dissolves as carbon dioxide, CO2

ii. Once in the water, it forms Carbonate or Bicarbonate (HCO3 or H2CO3)

iii. It can also dissolve from sedimentary rocks limestone containing calcium carbonate, CaCO3.

iv. Brought into the sea by runoff from land/rivers

v. Present in water as carbonate ions, CO3

BIOTIC

vi. Assimilated by marine organisms for shells, bones, and major molecules such are glucose.

ABIOTIC -

vii. When organism dies and sinks their shells and bones form limestone.

e. Micronutrients: iron, copper and manganese - these nutrients are in smaller amounts, but are needed for life processes as well.

how productivity is limited by availability of nutrients

- Sunlight only penetrates to certain depths - SO, photosynthesis can only happen in upper layer/photic zone.

- Therefore, the limiting factors for photosynthesis will limit productivity (Temperature, concentration of CO2, availability of water, availability of minerals, intensity of sunlight, duration of sunlight)

- Nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates are in short supply (they are limited) and are found in the upper layer of the ocean/photic zone

- Nutrients may sink --> they are lost from the surface ---> creating a 'shortage' in the upper level of the sea (in photic zone).

nutrients lose

1. - they leave upper layer/photic zone/productive zones by:

a. Organisms die/excretion (feces) - sink to the sea floor/sedimentation can occur.

b. Harvesting/Fishing - removes nutrients from the ecosystem.

c. When nutrients have sunk to the bottom, they are considered LOST.

why is sunken nutrients considered lost?

decomposition is very slow bc its cold/less oxygen

human impact

a. Runoff - agricultural waste/chemical/fertilizer/pollutants wash into sea

b. Dissolution - burning fossil fuels pollutes air then gases dissolve into water (like CO2)

c. Harvesting/Fishing - removal of nutrients

how do nutrients enter the surface water?

i. Dissolving or atmospheric dissolution of carbon dioxide and nitrogen

ii. Runoff from land - ROCK gets weathered and minerals are carried via erosion. Occurs with: calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus ions.

iii. Runoff from land from agricultural waste/chemical/fertilizer/pollutants that wash into sea (mainly nitrogen & phosphorous).

how do nutrients get into food chains?

i. Assimilation/uptake/absorption - producers absorb nutrients from water

ii. Consumers either get the nutrients from what they eat or directly from the water (like Calcium ions).

death/decomposition

i. incorporated into reefs

ii. or are compacted together through sedimentation to form rock.

upwelling/harvesting

brings weathered minerals/nutrients back to the surface; happens at the edge of landmasses.

/// by humans, takes nutrients out of the cycles

How to calculate (annual) change in a nutrient on a diagram with numbers

1. identify where you are calculating the change (in the surface water or in the atmosphere, etc.).

2. identify which numbers are going IN to the area and which are going OUT (arrows).

3. add up all of the amounts of the arrows going IN. Add up all of the amounts of the arrows going OUT. Subtract those sums and that will be your answer

Do NOT include any numbers for arrows which are not DIRECTLY touching the area in which you are calculating (ie. If you are doing the surface water ... don't use numbers which are coming out of the organisms as detritus).

How to calculate rate of change of amounts or concentrations of nutrients on a graph

rate is slope of a line

rate of change = final - initial values of y/over all time

slope (m) = y2 - y1/x2-x1

Topic 5: Coral reefs/ lagoons

Atoll formation

a. Fringing reef develops on island

b. Barrier reef forms

c. Island subsides/sinks

d. Atoll forms

Atoll theory

Dana-Darwin-Daly Theory

a. Fringing reef forms on the edge of volcanic island

b. Island subsides/sinks or sea level rises.

c. Reef grows forming barrier reef

d. Island completely subsides/sinks

e. Forming a lagoon around an atoll. *reference to time scale up to 30 Million year

evidence supporting atoll theory

i. Deep drilling examples Marshall Islands/Bikini Atoll;

ii. Coral deposits;

iii. Corals can only grow 50 m below surface;

iv. Carbon dating;

v. Corals live 30 M - 65M years old;

vi. Soils on atolls relatively young. Matches dates of post glacial periods; Supports hypothesis that sea level fall exposed reef platform (erosion)

methods for recontruscting history of coral reefs

carbon dating, core drilling, geomorphological analysis

carbon dating process

a. It is a radioactive isotope of carbon which is produced in the upper atmosphere by cosmic radiation. A very small amount of CO2 contains C14.

b. During photosynthesis - plants absorb C14 and then animals consume plants.

c. When an organism dies it stop taking in C14. At the time of death, C12 & C14 are the same for all living organisms.

d. But, the C14 starts to decay (breaks down). C14 has a half-life of 5,730 years

e. By looking at the ratio of C12 to C14 in the sample and comparing it to the ratio in a living organism, it is possible to determine the age of a formerly living thing fairly precisely.

geo. analysis process

2 main variables: relative sea level rise and the nature of the underlying substrate.

a. Soils on atolls relatively young around 3500 years old;

b. matches dates of post-glacial period;

c. supports hypothesis that sea level fall exposed reef platform (to erosion)

coral reef facts

• High biodiversity due to high productivity

• Can support many different secondary consumers/ predators;

• Long food chains possible (due to lower energy losses);

• Relatively stable environment;

• Many different Niches

coral and zooanthealle

. Corals are an animal (heterotrophic);

Zooxanthellae are single-celled algae/plants (autotroph) which live within the tissues of the coral. Contain chlorophyll so they can photosynthesize;

Mutualistic/Symbiotic relationship;

i. Zooxanthellae provide nutrients (carbohydrates/glucose) for coral animals;

ii. Corals provide a large surface area for the zoox. Growth gives the zoox. Conditions for maximum absorption of light;

iii. Products of digestion by corals provide nutrients for zoox.

what do corals need for growth?

1. Light - clear water low sedimentation/ low silt levels

a. Allows zooxanthellae to photosynthesis

b. Allows coral polyps to feed

2.Shallow, WARM water

how does sedimentation reduce coral growth ?

i. Sedimentation/silt covers coral

ii. Reduces light penetration

iii. Inhibits/reduces photosynthesis

iv. Reduced photosynthesis reduces coral growth

What happens to corals if seawater becomes acidic?

too much carbon dioxide leads to acidic water - causes coral skeletons to dissolve

artificial reefs

concrete & steel (readily available, strong, non-toxic, good habitat, long lasting). So it does not harm marine organism because toxic material will dissolve in water nor enter the food chain.

- Benefits:

i. Boosts economy by attracting tourists for:

1. Fishing

2. Snorkeling/diving

3. More tourists = more local spending (give at least 3 examples - dive boats, bait shops, hotels, restaurants, etc.)

ii. Provides suitable substrate for coral attachment; promoting higher biodiversity

iii. Protects shores

Plate 6: Ocean floor coasts

plate tectonic theory

crust broken into plates which float on the underlying layer (asthenosphere).

DESCRIBING PLATE TECTONIC THEORY

o Earth's crust/lithosphere is made of plates.

o Continents lie on plates.

o Plates are float/moving slowly on top of asthenosphere.

o Plates move do to convection currents in the asthenosphere.

o Plates meet at boundaries; convergent, divergent, and transform

o Plate movement causes earthquakes, mountain building, and volcanic eruptions.

evidence for plate tectonics theory

o Spatial relationship of current continents (puzzle-like fit; S. America/Africa)

o Paleontology - Related fossils on continents separated by ocean - shows they were once joined.

o Mountain ranges - stratification/layering of mountain range match that are found on different continents indicating continents were once joined.

o Magnetic reversal of rocks - seen at mid-ocean ridges

o Seafloor spreading - measuring moving divergent plates at mid-ocean ridges

o Sonar - mapping of seafloor

magnetic reversal of rocks at mid ocean ridges

1. At mid ocean ridge, which is a divergent boundary magma is cooling forming new crust.

2. Molten lava has no magnetism but as cooling acquires magnetic orientation of the earth's polarity at the time.

3. Rocks show magnetic orientation is symmetrical to both side of ridge.

4. Rocks further from the ridge are older than rocks closer to the ridge.

hydrothermal vent formation

i. Crack in ocean floor where cold water seeps in;

ii. Water is superheated by the underlying hot magma;

iii. Hot water builds up pressure, causing it to rise out of crack;

iv. Dissolves minerals on the way out;

v. Some minerals precipitate out along edge of crack forming a vent.

isostasy

buoyant properties of layers of rocks which float on other layers, according to their density and thickness. This explains why the Earth's crust floats on the denser, underlying layer, just as an ice cube floats in a glass of water. The principle of isostasy shows that the Earth's crust is generally higher where it is thicker and less dense; lower where it is thinner and denser.

is continental or oceanic crust more dense?

Continental crust is less dense as compared to oceanic crust (at convergent boundaries, oceanic will subside - go under cont.).

tsunami

an extremely large and fast moving wave;

- Caused by UNDERWATER earthquakes at CONVERGENT boundaries. They can also be caused by underwater volcanic eruptions, underwater landslides and glaciers (basically any displacement of water).

littoral zone

Area between high and low water marks/area submerged at high tide and exposed at low tide.

shape of shore

1. sedimentation/deposition - the depositing/accumulating of sediments to the shore.

i. Sedimentation forms muddy, sandy, estuaries, and mangrove shores.

ii. Caused by LOW wave energy - allows particles to drop out of solution/ to settle.

2. erosion- removing/moving/carrying of sediments.

i. This forms rocky shores

ii. Caused by HIGH ENERGY of fast/strong water/wave action, currents (wind, rain)

environmental factors affecting orgs at shores

- need to be able to resist wave action

o rocky shore - cling to rocks/live under shelter/holdfast/attach/tough shells/

o sandy shore - burrow, have tough shells

- tide exposes to air - need adaptations to survive drying out/desiccation

- changes in temperature- must be able to adapt such as burrowing/look for shelter

- changes in salinity - tide pools evaporate = salinity increases; rains in tide pool = salinity decreases

- exposed to predators for part of the day- need to hide/camouflage

STATE which orgs can survive (3)