Art History - roman to gothic

How did Roman art relate to Greek art?

Romans heavily copied and adapted Greek sculpture, painting, mythology, and architecture; much Roman art is Greco-Roman or based on Greek originals.

What are the four styles of Roman wall painting?

1) Incrustation (marble imitation), 2) Architectural (illusionistic), 3) Ornate (mythological scenes), 4) Intricate (mix of previous with realism).

What is notable about Roman painting techniques?

Use of anatomy, foreshortening, perspective, shading, color theory, and illusionism.

What is the Villa of Mysteries fresco known for?

Its large-scale, narrative, mythological scene believed to involve Dionysian rituals, using rich color and depth.

How did Romans view painters and sculptors?

Unlike Greeks, Roman artists were often enslaved or anonymous; sculpture was seen more as craft than high art.

What is the Patrician Torlonia bust?

A Roman marble portrait believed to depict Cato the Elder, showing realism and individualism.

What is the Capitoline Brutus?

A bronze head from the late 4th to 3rd century BCE, showing the serious and authoritative expression of a Roman statesman.

What defines Roman portrait sculpture?

Verism: an extreme realism focusing on age, wisdom, and individual character, often in bust form.

What is the function of Roman funerary reliefs?

To commemorate the deceased with lifelike, sometimes idealized, portraits and scenes of daily life.

What was the purpose of Roman triumphal arches?

To celebrate military victories and emperors; examples include the Arch of Constantine and Arch of Orange.

What is the function of aqueducts in Roman engineering?

To transport fresh water over long distances using gravity and arches; Pont du Gard and Segovia are examples.

What was the Colosseum used for?

A massive amphitheater for gladiatorial games, public spectacles, and executions; completed in 80 AD.

What is the architectural innovation of the Pantheon?

Its massive concrete dome with oculus, coffered ceiling, and perfect spherical proportions; originally a temple to all gods.

What materials did Romans innovate with in architecture?

Concrete, arches, vaults, and domes, allowing for larger and more complex structures.

What did the interior of the Pantheon symbolize?

A perfect sphere representing the heavens; the oculus provided divine light and a connection to the sky.

What does the phrase “grandeur that was Rome” reflect?

The scale, engineering, and ambition of Roman architecture and public works like roads, aqueducts, and monuments.

How did Roman sculpture change Greek ideals?

It retained Greek proportions but focused on realism, psychological depth, and individuality, especially in portraiture.

What is an example of Roman bronze sculpture?

The equestrian statue of Trebonianus Gallus (251–253 AD), showing a robust and assertive imperial figure.

How was art used politically in Rome?

To reinforce power, authority, and divine right of emperors through public portraiture, monuments, and temple decorations.

How did Roman engineering influence modern architecture?

Techniques like the arch, dome, and concrete are foundational to many modern buildings and infrastructures.

When was the Roman Empire officially split?

In 395 AD by Emperor Constantine, forming Eastern and Western empires.

When did the Western Roman Empire fall?

In 476 AD.

What was the Eastern Roman Empire also called?

The Byzantine Empire; it lasted from the 330s to 1453 AD.

What major cultural shift defines Byzantine art?

A movement away from naturalism toward abstract, symbolic, and spiritual representation.

What is the foundation of Byzantine artistic style?

Faith-based approach focused on stylization and universality rather than realism.

What does the term "Pantocrator" mean?

“Ruler of All” — a common depiction of Christ in Byzantine icons symbolizing divine authority.

Where can one of the earliest Christ Pantocrator icons be found?

At St. Catherine's Monastery in Sinai, from the 6th century.

What is notable about the Christ Pantocrator in Chora Monastery?

It features Christ in a solemn, frontal pose, typical of Byzantine emphasis on majesty and spiritual presence.

How did Byzantine art differ from Greco-Roman art?

It favored flat, formal, and symbolic imagery over three-dimensional naturalism and individualism.

Why is the Pantocrator image important in Byzantine worship?

It was a visual representation of divine judgment and grace, central to Orthodox Christian theology.

When was the Roman Empire officially split?

In 395 AD by Emperor Constantine, forming Eastern and Western empires.

When did the Western Roman Empire fall?

In 476 AD.

What was the Eastern Roman Empire also called?

The Byzantine Empire; it lasted from the 330s to 1453 AD.

What major cultural shift defines Byzantine art?

A movement away from naturalism toward abstract, symbolic, and spiritual representation.

What is the foundation of Byzantine artistic style?

Faith-based approach focused on stylization and universality rather than realism.

What does the term "Pantocrator" mean?

“Ruler of All” — a common depiction of Christ in Byzantine icons symbolizing divine authority.

Where can one of the earliest Christ Pantocrator icons be found?

At St. Catherine's Monastery in Sinai, from the 6th century.

What is notable about the Christ Pantocrator in Chora Monastery?

It features Christ in a solemn, frontal pose, typical of Byzantine emphasis on majesty and spiritual presence.

How did Byzantine art differ from Greco-Roman art?

It favored flat, formal, and symbolic imagery over three-dimensional naturalism and individualism.

Why is the Pantocrator image important in Byzantine worship?

It was a visual representation of divine judgment and grace, central to Orthodox Christian theology.

What is connoisseurship in art history?

A visual method of identifying, dating, and attributing artworks based on close observation and comparison; relies on a trained eye and visual memory.

What does the word “connoisseur” mean?

From the French connaisseur, meaning “one who knows”; someone with expert visual knowledge of art.

What types of evidence are used in connoisseurship?

1) Archaeological context, 2) Decoration/painting style, 3) Shape/form of the object.

Who was Giovanni Morelli and what did he contribute?

Italian doctor and art historian who developed the “Morellian Method,” analyzing minor details like ears or hands to determine authorship.

What was the Morellian Method?

An attribution technique based on diagnostic observation of small, overlooked features to distinguish individual artists.

Who was John Beazley?

A 20th-century scholar who applied connoisseurship to Greek vase painting, attributing specific works to individual painters based on style.

Who was Bernard Berenson?

A prominent connoisseur whose judgments on attribution shaped art markets; controversial for his influence and dealer connections.

Where is Berenson’s legacy preserved?

At Villa I Tatti in Florence; he was also connected to the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston.

Why is connoisseurship considered controversial?

It can be subjective, tied to personal memory, affected by market value, and criticized for elitism (“the good eye” idea).

What is one critique of connoisseurship from Maryan W. Ainsworth?

That it has a bad reputation due to its inexact nature, potential conflicts of interest, and the exclusivity of claiming an innate talent.

What role do visual archives play in connoisseurship?

Resources like the Cini Foundation's photographic library or Princeton's Index of Medieval Art help scholars compare artworks for attribution.

How can connoisseurship impact the art market?

Expert attributions can drastically raise or lower an artwork’s financial value and affect museum acquisitions.

What is the connection between connoisseurship and the painting “Salvator Mundi”?

Attributed (controversially) to Leonardo da Vinci, it highlights how connoisseurship can influence high-profile valuations and debates.

What is Gothic architecture?

A medieval architectural style that evolved from Romanesque architecture in 12th-century France, lasting into the 16th century.

Why is it called “Gothic”?

Originally a pejorative term used during the Renaissance (e.g., by Giorgio Vasari) to describe it as barbaric or non-classical.

What are the architectural roots of Gothic architecture?

It evolved from Roman basilicas and Romanesque churches, incorporating features like arches and vaults.

What key innovation distinguishes Gothic from Romanesque architecture?

The pointed arch, which allowed for greater height, flexibility, and light.

How did Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals differ in structure?

Romanesque used thick walls and rounded arches; Gothic used pointed arches, flying buttresses, and large stained-glass windows.

What is a flying buttress?

An external support structure that transfers the weight of the roof away from the walls, allowing for taller buildings and larger windows.

What is a ribbed vault?

A vault with a framework of ribs or arches under the intersections of the vaulted sections; allows lighter construction and taller ceilings.

What is a clerestory?

The upper part of a wall containing windows above eye level; used in Gothic cathedrals to admit light into the nave.

What are the typical elements of Gothic cathedrals?

Pointed arches, ribbed vaults, flying buttresses, large stained-glass windows, and verticality.

How did Gothic cathedrals create a spiritual experience?

They used height, light, and detailed decoration to inspire awe and elevate the worshipper’s experience toward the divine.

What is the significance of Chartres Cathedral?

A masterpiece of High Gothic architecture with flying buttresses, royal portal sculptures, and large stained-glass windows.

What role did sculpture play in Gothic cathedrals?

Used decoratively and didactically—e.g., portal reliefs showed biblical scenes and figures, teaching the faith to illiterate audiences.

What is a gargoyle?

A sculpted waterspout used to divert rainwater from walls, often shaped as grotesque creatures for visual drama and symbolic protection.

What is the difference between a gargoyle and a grotesque?

Gargoyles serve as water spouts; grotesques are decorative only, not functional.

What was the purpose of stained-glass windows?

To illuminate interiors with colored light and depict biblical stories, saints, and moral lessons.

How does Gothic mood differ from Romanesque?

Gothic interiors are tall and light-filled, whereas Romanesque interiors are heavy and dark.

What is the Basilica of Saint Denis known for?

It marks the beginning of Gothic architecture, particularly with its new choir (1140–1144) and use of pointed arches and ribbed vaults.

What does “Rayonnant” refer to in Gothic architecture?

A later Gothic style emphasizing decorative elements and radiant windows, particularly in choirs.

How are Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals different in elevation?

Romanesque: horizontal and modest in height. Gothic: vertical and soaring.

What online tool can help explore Gothic cathedrals?

The Mapping Gothic website, which includes maps, photos, and timelines of cathedral construction across Europe.

What is the “Migration Period” in Western Europe?

The Early Middle Ages (500–1000 AD), marked by invasions and cultural shifts after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

What major cultures shaped art during the Migration Period?

Christian Roman, Byzantine Roman, Merovingian (Frankish), Celtic, and Viking (North Germanic).

What is the Gundestrup Cauldron?

A richly decorated silver cauldron from 150 BC–1 BC with Celtic and Thracian motifs, showing early mythological imagery.

What are Merovingian brooches and fibulae known for?

Intricate metalwork, looped and zoomorphic designs blending Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions.

What is the Sutton Hoo Helmet?

An early 7th-century Anglo-Saxon helmet from a ship burial in England, combining martial and ritual symbolism.

How did Viking art express itself during this period?

Through stylized animal motifs, carved wood (e.g., Oseberg burial ship posts), and knotwork on ship fittings and churches.

What is a stave church?

A medieval wooden Christian church with Norse influence; examples include Torpo and Urnes in Norway.

What is the Book of Kells?

A lavishly decorated Irish Gospel manuscript (c. 800 AD) with intricate interlace patterns, iconic of Insular art.

When did Charlemagne die, and where did he rule from?

In 814 AD; his imperial seat was Aachen, where he promoted the Carolingian Renaissance.

What is Carolingian art known for?

A revival of Roman classical forms in manuscripts, architecture, and sculpture under Charlemagne’s reign.

What is the Palatine Chapel in Aachen?

Charlemagne’s royal chapel, begun in 792, inspired by San Vitale in Ravenna and marked by central-plan architecture.

What is the significance of Carolingian manuscript production?

It saw massive growth—from 500 manuscripts surviving pre-750 AD to over 7000 by 900 AD.

What are examples of Carolingian manuscripts?

Lorsch Gospels, Dagulf Psalter, Harley Golden Gospels, and Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram.

How did Carolingian manuscripts revive classical traditions?

Through Roman-inspired layouts, gold lettering, and imperial iconography, connecting Charlemagne’s rule to Roman authority.

What educational impact did Carolingian art have?

It promoted a “renewal of learning,” standardizing script and preserving classical texts across the empire.

What materials and techniques were used in medieval manuscripts?

Parchment, gold leaf, inks from minerals and plants, and hand-illumination; often done in monastic scriptoria.

What was the cultural goal of Carolingian art?

To revive the glory of Roman civilization and unify the Frankish empire under Christian imperial authority.

What was the role of Aachen in Carolingian art and politics?

It became a political, religious, and artistic center of the Carolingian Renaissance, modeled on Roman and Byzantine precedent.

What characterized Viking art from Oseberg and related sites?

Elaborate wood carvings of interwoven animals and beasts, blending Norse mythology and practical design.

What defines Insular art?

A fusion of Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, and Christian motifs in manuscripts and metalwork from Ireland and Britain, 600–900 AD.