History P2 National Unity

How did Singapore utilise multiculturalism to achieve social stability?

Equal opportunities granted to all races and used meritocracy for fairness in allocation of resources. Gov established ethnic self help groups for all majority races, eg MENDAKI 1981, Singapore Indian Association (SINDA) 1991 and Chinese Development Assistance Council (CDAC) 1992. Paid attention to minority rights and interests for Malays by cooperating with Association of Muslim Professionals (AMP) and Sikh Advisory Board.

How did Singapore use religion to achieve social stability?

State Constitution guarantees freedom of worship + 1990 Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act (MRHA) allowed government to issue restraining orders on anyone who attempted to disrupt racial harmony. Gov also declared public holidays for all major events of main religions, treated all religious sites with equal respect, and granted legal concessions to accommodate religious practices eg Sikh motorcyclists are not required to wear a helmet.

How did Malaysia use dominant culture to establish social stability?

Other minority ethnic groups accepted dominant culture as significant accommodative measures were also adopted for these groups.

Dominant culture policies: in 1971 Constitution, matters related to citizenship, national language and special position from Malays were sealed from public debate. In 1971 New Economic Policy, launched in order to boost bumiputera economic share due to economically dominant Chinese population at the time, gov started state trusts and agencies to provide “unlimited supplies of interest free finance” to bumiputeras, and also gave Malays preferential treatment in education/scholarship/gov employment opportunities. Malay language was also used as a language of instruction in all state schools from 1970 onwards.

Accommodative policies: Despite language policy, private schools could still use English and Tamil. Also evident that NEP did not suppress Chinese population as there was still economic ascendancy for the Chinese.

How did Malaysia use religion to achieve social stability?

Despite Islam being the official state religion, the Constitution still guarantees freedom of worship and there is no single authority presiding over various religions. However, UMNO still emphasises its Muslim identity to counter the Islamist message of the opposition party PAS, which has alienated the non-Muslim community.

How did Philippines’ use of dominant culture fail to establish social stability?

Attempt at integration was assimilative in practice, leading to regular Christian-Muslim riots.

Policy: In 1957, the Commission for National Integration granted Muslim scholarships in an assimilative effort to increase Muslim literacy rates. This led to a preference of Islamic education over public education, and the number of Islamic schools increased to 2000 by 1985. There was transmigration of Christians into the Mindanao, and by 1990, Muslims constituted 19% of the population in Mindanao, compared to the 76% in 1903.

Riots: In the 1968 Jabidah Massacre, the Filipino Army massacred rebellious Muslim trainees in an effort to destabilise Sabah, making it easier for the Philippines to seize it. MIM leaders were co-opted by government into administrative positions, leading to disillusionment amongst young MIM leaders who formed the Moros National Liberation Front (MNLF) in the same year, which aimed for complete separatism and independence.

How did Indonesia’s dominant culture fail to establish social stability?

Suharto attempted to increase control over Aceh, an outer island with special territory status. He established a policy of transmigration from Java and Madura to more remote parts of Indonesia, to dilute the Acehnese population and unique identity, under the guise of promoting national unity and fostering common identity. Elections of governor and regents also had to be approved by Suharto, which marginalised indigenous candidates from being elected. In Aceh, governors were often non-indigenous.

Led to widespread dissatisfaction amongst Acehnese: In 1976, the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) was formed, which launched an insurgency against the government to obtain independence. Though it was initially small and wiped out by security forces in 1979, it regained momentum in 1985 onwards. GAM was supplied with weapons and trained in Libya. Suharto responded forcefully by placing Aceh under martial law, and dispatched troops to undertake a brutal campaign against GAM, including human rights abuses, detention and execution. This only increased support for GAM due to the Acehnese population’s heightened resentment for Suharto’s government.

How did Thailand’s education policies fail to establish social stability?

Took an assimilative approach towards minorities, such as the White Hmong community in the northeast, by penetrating Thai culture into education. The Ministry of Education took control over all schools and teaching was conducted in Thai, which led to low performance amongst minorities and enhanced perceptions of deprivation. 1921 Compulsory Education Act mandated for state education to be conducted on Buddhist ethics, leading to closure of traditional Malay schools which caused riots to break out in Pattani in February 1923.

How did Indonesia’s education policies establish common identity?

All schools from kindergarten to university were focused on Pancasila values and the role of the military in the country’s history, and it was even included in university admission tests. 1989 National Education System Law mandated that all teachers must have a formal Pancasila qualification. Armed Forces History Centre was established in 1964 to entrench its role in the country’s independence, and in 1974, the agency was tasked with preparing the history curriculum in schools to stress the role of the military.

How did Indonesia’s language policies establish a common identity?

Adopted a neutral language, Bahasa Indonesia as its official language. The proportion of people who could speak the language grew from 40.8% in 1971 to over 80% in 1990. It was used as a language of instruction in schools and reflected the impact of the media which employed the language.

How did Vietnam use education to establish common identity?

Purged American influence from education in the South. All schools in the South were closed and teachers were made to attend retraining sessions before being permitted to go back to teaching. New textbooks with Marxist orientation were sent from the North and by 1985, the curriculum between the North and South were standardised. A campaign was launched to confiscate books, tapes and records reflecting Western influence.

How did Vietnam use religion to establish common identity?

Control of religion was centralised under the state and repressive measures were adopted against private religious groups. Established Vietnamese Buddhist Church (1981) and Committee for Solidarity of Patriotic Catholics (1983) as the only state-sponsored representative of Buddhist groups and Catholic groups respectively.

How did the Philippines use education to establish a common identity?

Utilised a centralised education system and unified curriculum which subordinated internal diversity to a common Filipino identity. Curriculum reflected a Christian bias which was problematic for non-Christian minority groups (which constituted less than 10%). Textbooks were criticised as either offensive or culturally unfamiliar to Muslim students, which had the effect of Muslim students wanting to attend Muslim schools.

How did Malaysia’s assimilative policies fail to establish common identity?

Assimilative policies toward the Orang Asli led to them continuing to reject becoming Muslims. Malay curriculum and education was implemented in Orang Asli villages, which caused high dropout rates due to the irrelevance of the curriculum. In 1994, 2/3 of Orang Asli children were not attending school. In the late 1970s, “Regroupment Schemes” attempted to relocate communities such as the Orang Asli into consolidated settlements, but it failed due to insufficient assistance from the government. Furthermore, the government launched an Islamisation programme in the late 1970s to convert the Orang Aslis to Islamic faith, where converts were given material rewards such as better housing and income-earning opportunities than non-converts.

How did Burma’s policies towards minorities fail to establish common identity?

The 1974 Constitution consolidated Burman dominance and exacerbated tensions between Burmans and the minorities, by dividing the country into various ethnic administrative divisions for ease of control, leading minority groups to challenge territorial delineations.

Karens: continued to demand for Karen autonomy after the war. Military response towards Karen’s in 1948 provoked the formation of several separatist groups including the Karen National Union. The distinct identity of the Karens was so ingrained that accommodation with the state was impossible.

Shans: AFPFL government penetrated the state with assimilative language policies and nationalisation and eroded their political powers: 1950 - Shan elites were forced to give up their judicial powers, 1952 - most of Southern Shan state were under military administration, 1959 - administrative powers of Shan elites were officially terminated. Resulted in rise of Guerilla fighters for Shan autonomy: Noon Seek Harn, Mong Tai Arm, Shan State Independent Army.

How did Singapore’s national service policies achieve territorial integrity and common identity?

Compulsory military service for all male Singaporean citizens, introduced in 1967 to build a viable defence force for the country, at the time of British military withdrawal. Also erodes class and racial barriers, therefore fostering common identity since Singaporeans of all races and social classes have to serve NS.

How did Indonesia’s assimilative minority policies fail to establish territorial integrity?

Policies like PKAT (New Order Development Programme for minorities in forested areas in the 1960s) contributed to long term perceptions of Javanese oppression and feelings of marginalisation, providing conditions for secessionist tendencies. It was a five year programme to achieve sedentarisation of nomadic people and forced conversion to officially recognised religions. It included educational programs and followed New Order’s official educational policy of teaching Bahasa Indonesia and Pancasila values.

Minority groups like East Timor had separate colonial experiences: was a Portuguese colony which laid the foundation for marginalising diversity, as they had their own unique identity (Catholic, Portuguese speaking). Many decades of military suppression fuelled anti-Indonesian sentiments in East Timor, and there were many instances of large scale fighting and military violence from 1979 to 1991 (eg November 1991 mass protest in Dili, mass demonstrations in October 1989 during the Pope’s visit). Cold War context: UN-led international support boosted Timorese nationalism and UN organised a referendum for Timor’s independence. Indonesian occupation ended in 2002 and new nation state of Timor Leste was formed, and Philippines failed to achieve territorial integrity.