PS102 Chapters 11, 13, 14

Motivation

• determines stimuli which evoke emotion which increases silence ad promote action and the cycle is repeated

• why does someone do something

when motives are INTERNAL

• they push us to act = DRIVES

when motives are EXTERNAL (outside of us)

• = INCENTIVES (entices us to act)

Primary Drives (Drive Reduction Theory)

• hunger

• thirst

• unlearned motives to satisfy biological needs

Secondary Drives (Incentive & Hierarchy of Need Theories)

• Need for achievement

• Need to affiliate

• Develop through learning & experience

• Developed through learning

Drive Reduction Theory

1. biological needs occur (body is dehydrated-need)

2. need to give rise to drive (drive- thirsty for water)

3. organism is motivated to satisfy the drives

4. drive reduced (goal-directed behaviour - action taken)

5. balance is restored

6. homeostasis - state of equilibirum

   • if homeostasis is not achieved, primary drive will kick in

   • ex: if thirsty, you will drink water

Homeostasis

1. autonomic nervous system

   1. sympathetic (fight/flight system)

   2. parasympathetic (rest and digest system)

2. hypothalamus

   • governs and controls the nervous system (CEO)

Arousal Theory

• people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal

• optimal level is different for all of us

Yerkes-Dodson Law

• performance on task is best (optimal) when the arousal level is optimal for that specific task

• arousal level - stress level (physiological response to a task)

Incentive Theory: Intrinsic Motivation

• Motivated by internal forces (satisfaction)

Incentive Theory: Extrinsic Motivation

• Motivated by external factors that are not related to the task (incentives like money and grades)

Incentive Theory: A-Motivation

• the state of being without motivation (covid effects, no motivation)

What Happens in the brain

• dopamine released

• dopamine pathway (reward pathway for learning):

  • midbrain → nucleus accumbens

  • prefrontal + frontal cortices

  • cingulate cortex

Hunger drives

• internal cues motivate hunger stimulating the hypothalamus in the brain, receptors from the stomach, intestines and liver

• level of glucose (blood sugar)

• lipids (produced when the body breaks down fat from foods)

• leptin (released from fat cells as they grow)

• external cues motivate hunger when we see, smell or taste food that we like

Internal cues

• receptors in the brain

  • hypothalamus (lateral and ventromedial areas = brain is on-off cents for eating)

  • dual centre theory of motivation

  • receptors for glucose in liver and hypothalamus

Vestibular Stimulation

• reduction of total body fat

• by activating the hypothalamus

Emotions

• intra-personal state in response to an internal or external event

What do emotions do?

• give us a sense of purpose and motivation for action

• help us to bring motivation to saliency

• emotions are positive and negative feelings also known as AFFECTIVE STATES

Motivation VS Emotions

• motivation determines stimuli

• stimuli evokes emotion

• emotion increases salience and promotes action

Salience

• importance

Amygdala

• conditioning and recognizing fear

• activated when we experience fear, or see pictures of fearful expressions

  • ex: seeing a video of someone else experiencing fear

Components of Emotions: Physiological - Bodily Arousal

• rush of adrenaline, increases heart rate/blood pressure

Components of Emotions: Cognitive

• the ways we perceive or interpret a stimulus or situation

Components of Emotions: Physical and behavioural (expression of emotions verbally and non verbally)

• facial expressions, gestures, tone of voice

Components of Emotions: Emotional & Behavioural

• keeping emotions present (happiness) or removing it (sadness) (regulating emotions)

James-Lange Theory

• physiological arousal (physiological response to stimulus) appears before the emotion is perceived

  • ex: feeling afraid because your pulse is racing

    • see bear, heart races, then you feel scared

Cannon-Bard Theory

• emotional arousal (fear) and physiological arousal occurs simultaneously

  • thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex and the automatic nervous system

  • ex: see stimulus (bear), heart rate increase at the SAME time we feel fear

Schachtee-Singer’s Two Factor Theory

• it is the way you interpret (AKA cognitive evaluation) the physiological reaction that determines the emotion (fear)

  • look at external cues to decide what to feel

  • ex: stimulus → general arousal (physiological component) → assessment of surroundings (cognitive component) → fear

Expressing emotions

• Paul ekman

• looked at wether or not we are born with innate emotions that we point have to learn

Range of Emotions

• basic emotions - unlearned universal emotions that are found in all cultures (innate)

  • surprise, interest, joy, rage, fear, disgust, shame and anguish

Display rules

• cultural rules dictate how emotions should be expressed and where and when it is appropriate to do so

Micro Expressions

• tiny involuntary subtle facial changes that can give away a persons true emotions

• involuntary emotional leakage (Ekman and Friesen)

Functions of Emotions: Cognitive

• emotions help organize and retrieve memories

• guides decision making

Functions of Emotions: Behavioural

• emotions alter behaviours

• action tendencies - emotions are associated with predictable patterns of behaviour

Functions of Emotions: Social

• emotions both help and inhibit relationships

Dopamine-Reward system

• helps to drive and direct us to achieve goals but also causes addiction (drugs, technology, alcohol)

Stress

• the physiological and psychological response to a condition that threatens or challenges the individual and requires some form of adaptation or adjustment

  • an emotional state resulting from perceived threat or danger

4 ways of experiencing stress: Feeling Frustrated

• an emotion people experience when thwarted in pursuit of a goal

4 ways of experiencing stress: Feeling Pressured

• an expectation or demand that someone acts in a certain way

4 ways of experiencing stress: Feeling Endangered

• an emotion people experience when they are in a life threatening situation

4 ways of experiencing stress: Feeling Conflicted

• discomfort brought about by 2 or more gaols or impulses perceived to be incompatible

The Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale

• looking at how life events cause stress

Type of stressors

• major life events

• traumatic events

• chronic stress (job, health)

• daily hassles

• self-generated

• social-cultural conditions (discrimination and prejudice)

Traumatic Events

• negative

• uncomfortable

• an ACUTE event

Chronic Stress

• no clear start or finish

• becomes pervasive

• can be environmental

Self-Generated Stressor:

• inability to accept uncertainity

• pessimistic

• negative self talk

• unrealistic expectations

• perfectionism

• lack of assertiveness

Stress as a Transaction

• Peoples varied reactions to the same event

• how people interpret and cope with stressful events/situations

• a critical factor: our evaluation of the event

Appraisal

• is a key in ability to handle stressful situations

Primary appraisal

• assess how big a stressor is (some are universal and some are unique)

• leads to one of 3 answers

  • situation is not relevant to me

  • situation is relevant but not that threatening

  • situation is relevant - stress producing

Secondary Appraisal

• is appraisal (evaluation) of resources and ones ability to deal with a stressor

• recognizes the situation as stressful

  • what resources/strategies do I have for dealing with it?

  • are these resources/strategies effective?

  • can I do what needs to be done?

  • am I able to cope?

Coping

• cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage the demands of the environment

• three approaches:

  • Anticipatory coping

  • Problem-Focused coping

  • Emotion-Focused coping

Anticipatory coping

• precedes a stressful event

• getting ready ahead of time to deal with tough stuff

Problem-Focused Coping

• a response aimed at reducing, modifying or eliminating the source of stress

• take the bull by its horns

Emotion-focused coping

• a response aimed at reducing the emotional impact of the stressor

• modifying cognitions = rethinking the problems

• cope with the feelings that arise

How do we rethink the problem? Reappraisal

• rethinking the consequences of a situation

• downward comparison

  • at least i’m better off than they are

How do we rethink the problem? Avoidance

• trying to forget about the problem

How do we rethink the problem? Humour

• some positive effects on the immune system

  • lighten the mood, reduce impact of stress on the immune system

How do we rethink the problem? Accepting

• the problem and reaching the impact of stress

• through exercise and relaxation

Stress as a response: Psychological

• depression, hopelessness, hostility

• learned

Stress as a response: Physiological

• increases in heart rate, release of stress hormone

• automatic

Walter Cannon

• Responsible for fight or flight responses

• Hypothalamus → autonomic nervous system

Hypothalamus (HPA access)

• initiate the sympathetic nervous system

• release stress hormons

• prepares body for fight or flight

• makes pituitary gland produce ACTH

Chronic

• long term

Acute

• short lasting and just happened

General Adaptation Syndrome (Hans Seyle): Phase 1

1. alarm

   • arousal, prepare vigorous activity

2. resistance

   • moderate arousal, endure and resist

   • try to get away and change the situation

3. exhaustion

   • stressor is prolonged, resources(hormones) are depleted

   • exhaustion

• body must have a certain level of arousal, without arousal you will be dead

General Adaptation Syndrome (Hans Seyle): Phase 2 & 3

• if phase 2 is prolonged, it can effect someones help

  • ex: high bp, whole sympathetic nervous system is working and there is not enough time for the resources being used to be recovered

• physical health is affected in phase 3

Chronic Stress and The Brain

• Chronic stress can reduce the size of prefrontal cortex neruons

  • Hurts the persons cognitive functioning

• Rewarding stress can help growth in hippocampus (new growth)

  • not all stress is bad

Hippocampus

• area resemble for consolidating new information into our existing memory network

Eustress

• the optimal level of stress that promotes physical and psychological health

• can motivate individuals, enhance performance, and promote personal growth

Hardy or Stress-Resistant Personality

• welcomes challenges, takes control, view stressors as opportunities for growth

  • Terry fox

Type A - Style resulting in continual stress

• personality traits: competitive, impatient, angry, hostile

• hostility is the number 1 personality trait linked to heart disease

  • women have more estrogen to protect them from heart disease and men do not

Type B - experience lower levels of stress

• personality traits - more relaxed, less aggressive, less hostile

Type C - particularly vulnerable to stress

• personality traits - positive attitudes, tend to turn anger inwards

  • when unhappy and stressed, they are unable to express their own emotions and repress everything

Type D

• Personality type characterized by negative affectively such as worry or glories and social inhibition

Biomedical model

• predominant view in medicine, focuses on illness rather than health

Bio-Psychosocial model

• holds that both medical and weakness are determined by a combination of biological, psychological and social factors

social support

• more social support correlates with less stress

• support may increase self confidence and dealing with stressors

• but may have contagion effect or network effect

Contagion Effect

• suggests that emotions or behaviors exhibited by one individual can influence those around them, leading to a ripple effect throughout the group

Network Effect

• surround yourself with people with problems like yours meaning you’ll never really escape your problems

Approach-Approach

• choose between 2 desirable things

Avoidance-Avoidance

• choose between 2 undesirable things

Approach-Avoidance

• choose a goal that has both pros and cons

Maladaptive coping

• Learned Helplessness

  • passivity, unavoidable aversive experiences

• Aggression/lashing out

  • Verbal/Physical

  • Catharsis

  • Anger = More Anger

• Indulgence

  • stress eating, gambling, alcohol and drugs

  • compensate by doing something pleasurable

Adaptive Coping

• anticipatory coping

  • plan in advance

• problem-focused coping : face the problem

  • reduce, modify or eliminate the source of stress

• emotion focused coping

  • reduces the emotional impact of the stressor

  • recognizes/regulates disruptive emotional reactions

What increases resilience?

• optimism

  • expect positive outcomes

• hardiness

  • commitment, control and challenge

• social support

  • tangible aid (ressources)

  • information

  • emotional support

• exercise, diet and relaxation

PTSD

• Experience or witness a scary, shocking, terrifying or dangerous event

  • usually life threat or risk of sever injury

To receive a PTSD diagnosis…

• must be a criteria A stressor

  • directly experienced or witnessed

• ex:

  • exposure to war or combat

  • threatened or actual physical assault

  • car accidents

  • natural or man made disasters

PTSD symptom clusters

• intrusion symptoms

  • nightmares, thinking about the even when you don’t want to be (flashbacks)

• avoidance of stimuli associated with the event

  • avoiding the stimuli

    • avoiding riding trains if you had a train accident

• negative alteration in cognitions and mood

  • the way think of yourself and the world has changed, don’t trust anyone, everyones out to get you, “I failed”

• alterations in arousal and reactivity - hyper-vigilance, hyper-arousal

  • if door slams, they jump up and overreact, can sleep

• duration must last greater than a month

  • symptoms can get better overtime

  • They initially might have the symptoms of PTSD but they heal overtime and no longer meet the criteria

Prevalence

• PTSD results from a failure to recover

  • traumatic reactions common

  • most improve overtime

Risk Factors

• Previous Trauma - more exposure, increasing risk

• previous/current psychological history

• women are more likely to develop ptsd

• higher the education level, the less likely you are to develop ptsd

Treatments for PTSD

• Medication

  • anti depressants to start

  • some antipsychotics/mood stabilizers at times

  • prazosin for nightmare

• therapy

  • psychotherapies - trauma focused

    1. EMDR - Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing

    2. CPT - Cognitive Processing Theory

    3. PE - Prolonged Exposure

Social Psychology

• an area of psychology that seeks to understand, explain and predict how peoples thoughts, feelings and behaviours are influenced by the actual, imaged or implied presence of others

Social Cognition

• how people perceive, interpret and categorize their own and others social behaviour

• we watch what others do (and what they don’t) and learn from observation of others

Why do others affect us?

• people provide us with information about ourselves

Conformity

• The tendency of people to change their behavior as a result of group pressure.

• Example: Elevator experiment where individuals conform by facing the back due to group pressure.

Obedience (DOUBLE EDGED SWORD)

• the psychology of following orders, often from an authoritative figure

• example: milgram’s obedience to authority experiment where participants administered electric shocks as intersected by the “professor”

Attributions

• explanations about what causes our own and others behaviours and outcomes

• example: answering questions like “why did she do that” or “that happens because?”

Dispositional (Internal) Attributions

• attributing people’s behaviours to their persona; characteristics or personality traits

• “they are acting rude because they are a mean person”

Situational (external) attribution

• Attributing aspects of the situation to causing behavior.

  • Example: "Being mad because the printer broke."

Fundamental Attribution Error

• The tendency to overestimate the role of personal factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behavior.

  • Example: Attributing someone's behavior to their personality rather than considering external factors.