Conservation Biology Test 2

What is the importance of water?

- Allows life

- Moderates our climate

- Humans depend on it

- Use of freshwater is increasing

What is the conservation value of water?

• freshwater ecosystems are <1% of Earth's surface

• 6% of species require freshwater ecosystems

• important for ecosystem services and economics

Freshwater abundance

- most water is saline

- 2.5% is freshwater

- most freshwater is unavailable

- <1% is available

- enough for our needs if we use it sustainably

Majority of our water is used for what?

Agriculture (69%)

What is our water usage?

- Agriculture 69%

- Industry 23%

- Homes and cities 8%

We cannot produce mass amounts of food without what?

A mass amount of water

More than 20% of our water is taken from what? What is is used for?

Rivers; for agriculture

Floods are a natural result of what?

rivers

Floods provide what? How?

Soil; Bring in nutrients

When do floods become problematic?

When humans live on floodplains

Solutions to floods

- Zoning restrictions in floodplains

- Allow natural floodplains to work (ecosystem services)

- Restoration of channelized rivers

Advantages/Disadvantages for Dams

Advantages:

• Flood control

• Year-round water

• Hydropower

Disadvantages:

• Habitat loss/degradation

• Sedimentation in reservoirs

• Fish migration

• Decreased biodiversity

• Production of GH gases

Ogallala Aquifer

- lies beneath parts of 8 states

- supplies 30% of agricultural water

- levels are dropping

Reducing agricultural water usage will

• raise the price of water

• water monitoring

• drip irrigation

Drip irrigation

- 40-60% less water

- Expensive

Industrial water usage

• water use has declined recently

  • More efficient processes

  • recycling of water

Home water usage uses how much water?

About 11% of total water in U.S. (9% globally)

What can you do to reduce water usage?

- water saving heads

- low flush toilet

- fix leaks

- energy star washing machines/dishwashers

- modify your personal use

How do we know CO2 increase is due to humans?

1. we see drops in CO2 during human events (Great Depression, World Wars)

2. suess effect.

3. CO2 is a Greenhouse Gas: molecules that can trap heat and cause atmospheric warming

4. Greenhouse effect is necessary for life: otherwise it would be -18C on the Earth's surface

5. the problem is the exponential increase in CO2 and other greenhouse gases

6. Models that include anthropogenic effects fit the observed temperature change better than those based only on natural effects

7. Current climate models predict an increase of 2-5C by 2100

8. global temperature changes have already started melting polar and continental ice and led to rising levels

9. Melting permafrost releases methane, creating a positive feedback loop for global climate change

Effects of global temperature changes include___________

flooded coastal cities, changes in biomes

Effects of global climate change on biodiversity

- Phenology

- Geographic range

- Habitat quality

- Persistence/viability

Phenology =

timing of seasonal activity

Areas where agricultural crops are now grown may ___________, which may produce ______________________.

change; further habitat destruction by humans

How is climate change affecting ecosystem services?

• Freshwater

  • 2 billion people are dependent on glacial melt

• Oceans

  • decreased pH

  • Loss of coastal marshes from storms

  • shifting fisheries

• Disease regulation

• Thermal limits of humans

• Food security

  • Agricultural regions will suffer

Disease regulation needed because

warmer temperatures = more outbreaks of diseases that affect plants and animals, including humans

Conservation responses to climate change

Mitigation and Adaptation

Mitigation (conservation response)

limits the severity of climate change by

• reducing/stabilizing GH gas emissions

• increasing size of carbon sinks (forests)

Adaptation (conservation response)

Taking action to reduce the harm of climate change to humans and ecosystems

• Changing priorities of conservation biologists

• Human responses may rival direct climate effects

What is involved in mitigation?

1. tax breaks (alt. fuels) and mandates (mpg)

2. cap and trade

3. carbon sequestration via forest conservation and restoration

4. technology already available to reduce emissions

Three steps to a carbon neutral future

1. implement improvements in energy efficiency and terrestrial biological sequestration (trees)

2. Transition to more renewable energy while increasing CO2 sequestration from fossil fuels

3. Complete commitment to renewable energy source without carbon emissions (solar, wind)

Climate change Treaties/Legislation

1. Kyoto Protocol (1997)

2. Copenhagen Accord (2009)

3. Paris Agreement (2015)

Kyoto Protocol 1997

Agreement by 187 countries to attempt to limit carbon emissions

• Not signed by the U.S., Russia, or Australia

• Set up a carbon trading program between countries

Copenhagen Accord (2003)

• Continues Kyoto but is non-binding.

• Warns of climate change, but few teeth

• Some agreements among the largest polluters

Paris Agreement (2015)

3 goals?

World's first comprehensive climate agreement.

Goals:

• Holding the increase in global temperatures below 2°C, pursuing efforts to reduce to 1.5°C

• Increase adaptation, foster climate resilience

• Making financial flows consistent with low GH gas emissions and climate-resilient development

U.S. pulled out in 2020

What are the three possible strategies of adaptation?

1. Resistance

• Managing an ecosystem so that it is not altered

2. Resilience

• Managing in a way that allows change but maintains essential species and ecosystem processes, albeit in different configurations

3. Transformation

• Allowing the system to change so much that a novel ecosystem emerges

Some species are unlikely to be able to adjust to what?

Climate change

Resilience examples

• Invest in dispersal corridors

• Identify protected areas that will support a mix of habitat types

• Targeted translocations of species to areas that are expected to develop appropriate climatic conditions (last resort)

• Identify where species are likely to exist in 50-100 years

Transformation focuses on what?

Places where large species losses are likely

Transformation shifts from what to what?

Preservation/restoration of historical conditions → guiding the transition of species toward these new environments

How can we make a difference?

1. public communication problem

2. individual behavior

What kind of individual behavior can we do to make a difference?

1. U.S. households = 38% of U.S., 10% of global emissions

2. Existing technologies and modest behavior changes could reduce this 20%

3. Get involved in the political discussion

What is the major threat to majority of vertebrates threatened with extinction?

Habitat loss from human activities

What is the percent of wildlife habitat that has been destroyed in majority of the Old World tropical countries?

more than 50%

How much primary forest habitat has been lost in tropical Asia?

65%

How much of forests in Sub-Saharan Africa has been destroyed?

65%

How much of European land cover has been altered by humans?

85%

How much of the Mediterranean forests have been destroyed?

90%

How much old growth forest have been destroyed in the U.S.?

Almost all - more than 90%

Deforestation varies over....

time

How much of the Earth's surface is covered by tropical rain forests?

How many species do they support?

7% of Earth's surface

>50% of Earth's species

1. How many km^2 did rain forests cover before humans?

2. In 1982?

3. 1991?

4. 2006?

1. 16 million

2. 9.5 million

3. 6.7 million

4. 4.2 million

About how many km² of rainforests are lost each year?

140,000 km²

If there is no restoration projects performing at the same rate as the lose of rain forests, by which year will there be virtual no tropical forests?

2050

How much (%) has deforestation increased between August 2007 to 2008 and what was the cause?

69% increase

due to soy and beef prices

Where does rain forest destruction come from (who does it) and how much (%) does each contribute?

61% small scale cultivation by poor farmers

21% logging operations

11% cattle ranchers

7% miscellaneous (cash-crop plantations, road building, mining)

Tropical Africa deforestation cause

farming

Tropical America deforestation cause

cattle ranching

Tropical Asia deforestation cause

logging

What are 2 consequences of deforestation?

Erosion

Fire

Protected areas may be of...

limited use

Economic instruments for forest conservation and management?

reduced government subsidies

working with local people

carbon markets

What is unsustainable forestry?

mining the forest: not leaving anything behind, similar to mining oil or natural gas

What are some practices of sustainable forestry?

minimal roads

selective harvest

small clear-cuts

replanting

no harvest in steep or riparian areas

green logos on wood products

What is the problem with sustainable forestry?

the guidelines do not include wildlife

What habitats other than tropical rain forests are threatened?

Tropical dry forests

Grasslands

Coral Reefs

Wetlands

Arid Lands

Why are tropical dry forests threatened?

How much original dry forest is left in parts of Central America?

• Tropical dry forests are more suitable for agriculture

  • Human densities are 5x greater in dry forests (compared to tropical)

• less than 2% remains

How much of the original grasslands in the U.S. are left in Indiana and Illinois?

1/10,000

How many fish (%) do coral reefs support?

How much surface area (%) do they cover?

How much has been destroyed?

How much more is projected to be lost in the next few decades?

1. 33% fish species

2. 0.2% surface area

3. 10% destroyed

4. 30% more

How much (%) of Wetlands in the U.S. have been destroyed in the past 200 years?

50%

How much (in km^2) of Arid Lands have been converted to man-made deserts (desertification)

9 million km^2

What is habitat fragmentation?

when a large, continuous area of habitat is reduced in area and divided into 2 or more fragments

What is the fragmentation process?

1. gap formation

2. gap enlargement or replication

3. connectivity of original vegetation broken; landscape shifts from forest to anthropogenic habitat

What are the differences between habitat fragments and the original habitat?

1. fragments have less area

2. fragments have more edge

3. the center of each fragment is closer to an edge

4. fragments have reduced connectivity

5. as the size of an area increases, edge increases as a slower rate. Once the fragment reaches a certain threshold size, interior communities can't exist

What are the affects of habitat fragmentation?

• limits the dispersal and colonization of species

• roads can cause direct mortality

• can produce subpopulations,

  • more vulnerable to inbreeding depression, genetic drift, and extinction

What are edge effects?

microclimate changes

interspecific interactions

potential for disease

Many habitats are naturally....

patchy

Why are naturally patchy and fragmented habitats different?

• rich internal patch structures vs. simplified patches

• less contrast between patches = less intense edge effects

• Certain features of fragmented landscapes pose specific threats to populations

Name some (type) species that are vulnerable to fragmentation

• wide-ranging species

• non-mobile species

• species dependent on patchy or unpredictable resources

• ground nesters

• interior species

• Species vulnerable to human exploitation

How do species persist in a fragmented landscape?

be adaptable to the human matrix

maintain viable populations with fragments

be highly mobile

corridors between fragments may allow viable populations

When did habitat degradation start?

with agriculture and the Green Revolution

What are some products of agriculture and the Green Revolution?

What has it done for people?

Without it, what would have happened to the land?

higher-yield crops, added irrigation, pesticides, fertilizers, and mechanization

has produced more food on less land since 1960

2x more land would have been converted into agricultural land

What is a major pesticide that has polluted our wildlife?

DDT

What is biological accumulation?

the persistence of chemicals in living tissue

What is biological magnification?

concentrations of chemicals in tissue increase as they move through the food chains

What are pesticides (how do they act in living tissue)?

hormone mimics and blockers

Pesticides have led to ______ and reduced _______ in species

What species does it affect the most?

feminization and reduced reproduction

sturgeons, alligators, frogs, and minks

What is the pesticide that has been plaguing frogs?

Atrazine

Where does nutrient pollution primarily come from?

agricultural fertilizers

What is eutrophication?

"overproduction" of algae, leading to decimation of plankton and bottom-dwelling plants, and cascading effects

decomposition of these algae deplete oxygen, leading to "dead zones"

What are 2 ways we can balance agriculture and conservation?

High-yield = land sparing

Wildlife friendly

What are the pros and cons of high-yield, land-sparing agriculture?

What is a current development being worked on?

Pros

• maximize food production in minimal area

Cons

• water

• fertilizer

• pesticides

• global effects

Development

• genetically engineered crops

What are the pros and cons of wildlife-friendly agriculture?

What are some current developments?

Pros:

• Reduced use of nutrients, pesticides, and water

• increased biodiversity

Cons:

• reduced yield

• more land

Developments:

• organics

• biodynamics

Biodynamic farming was one of the first...

organic farming movements

What approach does Biodynamic farming take and what is its goal?

Triple Bottom Line approach - ecological, economic, and social sustainability

What are biodynamic farming’s approaches to farming?

• Organic

  • no chemical or genetic engineering

• Soil health

  • cover crops and compost prep

What does biodynamic farming do for biodiversity?

it sets aside 10% of its land for wildlife

Where are the 4 biodiversity hotspots in the U.S.?

• Appalachian Mountains

• Florida

• California

• Hawaii

What is the problem with the Appalachian hotspot?

The mountains are full of coal; we are a fossil fuel hungry country

Classic examples of American overexploitation

Passenger Pigeon

American Bison

What causes overexploitation?

a change in society