Churchill as Wartime PM

Booklet 2 - war strategy, relationship with generals, role in international politics, and the 1945 election.

Churchill becomes PM

10th May 1940

Norway Campaign date

April 1940

Norway Campaign impact

• Huge failure for Churchill as First Lord of the Admiralty - damaged his military reputation and made him unpopular among generals

• Discredits Chamberlain also, and leads to political crisis back home

Date which Germany begins invasion of France, Belgium, and the Netherlands

10 May 1940 - same day as Churchill became PM

Churchill’s attitude upon becoming PM

• determined to continue the war - rejected proposals of a compromised peace.

• Hoped the USA would join the war

• Felt destined to lead Britain through the war - he felt “a profound sense of relief” upon becoming PM

Reasons for Churchill/Britain to be confident when he became PM (early May 1940)

• Britain were fighting only on one front

• France had large forces and seemed strong

• Italy had stayed out of the war

• Churchill had put together a cabinet of his own supporters

• Morale was high (blitz hadn’t begun)

Reasons for Churchill/Britain to be less confident when he became PM (early May 1940)

• Churchill’s past military record wasn’t encouraging - Gallipoli, Norway campaign

• Little enthusiasm/support of his appointment by President Roosevelt

• Many MPs and other officials were still Chamberlain supporters - Parliament somewhat divided

14th May 1940 - developments in war (France)

• Germany broke French defences with their ‘Blitzkreig’ strategy

• Strong possibility France would be occupied by Nazis

Situation by 28 May 1940

• British Army had become cut off from French forces & had retreated to Dunkirk

• Possibility of Italy joining the war - this would threaten Egypt and the Suez Canal, cutting off access to India & the Far East

• German Air Force superiority

• Japan was a possible threat to British possessions in South Asia

• Gold reserves diminishing - possible Britain couldn’t afford to continue

• Considerable fear of mass bombing in Britain

• Halifax (Foreign Sec) was secretly attempting to negotiate peace terms with Germany, via Italy

Dunkirk evacuation/Operation Dynamo date

27 May - 4 June 1940

Famous “Fight on the beaches” and “Finest Hour” speeches

June 1940

Why was Halifax interested in attempting to negotiate peace terms? Why did Churchill reject this idea by June 1940?

• Halifax wanted to understand Britain’s options - wanted to preserve Empire and prevent further war

• Went via Italy as they were still neutral

• Churchill rejected it as dangerous - it would show Hitler that Britain was weakening

How the war changed after August 1940

• Nazi air force changed tactic - began bombing cities; start of the Blitz

• Unintentionally, this allowed the RAF to recover - led by Dowding

• Dowding’s role in helping the RAF was met with no gratitude - removed from command in Nov 1940 with Churchill’s blessing

Churchills’ achievements by the end of 1940

• Kept morale high through his oratory & determination - persuaded the country to prepare for a long war. Remarkable as Britain’s situation was bleak - no allies, the Blitz etc

• Established strong personal relations with Roosevelt & Stalin - remarkable as he was hard to get along with, and their policies clashed with Britain’s

• Covert operations in occupied Europe

• Destroying French ships in 1940 - prevented possible German invasion of Britain

• bombing campaign of Germany

• His high-risk strategies had paid off

Date - Battle of Britain

July-October 1940

The Blitz dates

September 1940 - May 1941

Date - Germany invades the USSR; Britain gains USSR as an ally

22 June 1941

Date - USA joins the war after Pearl Harbour bombing

December 1941

Dates - Bombing campaign of Germany

• began in 1941

• Feb 1942 - Area Bombing directive issued, mass bombing began

Main reasons Britain decided to fight on in 1940

• Churchill had proved a strong leader and the public beleived in his determination to acheive total victory'

• It was too late for mediation - appeasement had already failed & Mussolini couldn’t be trusted

• Britain’s military position was strong - strongest navy in the world, RAF was still effective, the Channel provided a natural defence

• Hope of USA aid & involvement in the war

Churchills’ approach to his staff

• Demanded high levels of determination & energy from all staff

• Exhausted his staff

• Insisted on detailed and concise paperwork

• Anyone who didn’t keep up/displeased him was dismissed - however he was known to take criticism from some people

Churchill’s relationship with allies

• Believed in establishing close personal relationships

• Relied on informal friendships to help in negotiations & decisions

Churchill’s powers of communication

• Skilled orator and writer

• Already a household name due to previous books

• Never neglected the House of Commons - made regular speeches throughout the war

• spoke on the radio often, however usually through a voice actor

Churchill’s personal flamboyance

• Appeared in many naval & military uniforms to emphasis his role as a wartime leader

• Famous one-piece siren suit among many other iconic outfits 

Churchill’s willingness to travel

• Most well-travelled of all PMs before him

• Took many wartime journeys despite danger and discomfort - showed his energy and determination

Churchill’s daring & ruthlessness

• Absolute determination to fight on in 1940 and acheive victory

• Decision to destroy the French fleet after Dunkirk evacuation

• Supported civilian bombing of Germany

• Planned to use poison gas

• impatient with any sign of delay or weakness

• Use of large network of spies & saboteurs throughout Germany and Nazi occupied Europe

Arguments that Churchill’s leadership style was effective

• Effective problem solver and negotiator, both within government and on the international stage

• His determination was effective in boosting morale within government, the military, and general public

Arguments that Churchill’s leadership style was not effective

• He was eccentric and difficult to work for - some saw it as unprofessional

• Criticism over his recklessness and rash decisions, which some thought would become dangerous and damaging for Britain

• his energy ensured direction but his impatience could overlook strategic decision making

Churchill’s own military expertise/experience

• He had seen action before as war correspondent in India and South Africa

• However, he had little experience of command, planning, or strategy

• Had been First Lord of the Admiralty in WWI, however resigned in 1915 due to the Gallipoli disaster

• At outbreak of WWII, had been First Lord once again - supported the very unsuccessful Norway Campaign.

• Had no formal strategic training - relied on intuition and risk-taking

Churchill’s view of the generals

• Would not let them get on with it without his interference

• Didn’t want a repeat of heavy losses in WWI - blamed this on politicians leaving the generals alone without supervision

• Frustrated at complacency of leading commanders during appeasement in 1930s

• During first months as PM, criticised the generals and issued unrealistic orders e.g. defending Calais to the last - pointless in military terms & caused unnecessary losses

• Would ignore their advice if he thought he knew better

The general’s view of Churchill

• Viewed him as unpredictable, unrealistic, and amateur

• Very aware of his previous failures

• Sometimes were forced to ignore Churchill’s orders in order to preserve troops - e.g. during the fall of France, Lord Gort ignored orders - key decision which helped Britain continue the war

• Sir John Dill thwarted Churchill’s desire to send British forces to France when France was falling - firmly and tirelessly argued against Churchill

General Brooke

• Chief of Imperial Staff

• complex but crucial relationship

• Often clashed with Churchill over strategy - found him impulsive and militarily naïve

• Despite clashes, Churchill respected Brooke’s judgement

• Served as moderating force - restrained Churchill’s riskier aims

• Strongly positive overall impact - helped ensure military strategy was professional but still pleased Churchill

General Wavell

• Initially admired by Churchill, however Churchill soon grew frustrated with Wavell’s cautious and methodical approach

• Failure in Greece 1941 attracted harsh criticism from Churchill - he overlooked the fact that Wavel was overstretched and under-resourced

• Churchill thought he lacked dynamism and aggressiveness

• Dismissed in July 1941

• Negative impact - his dismissal disrupted command & morale - Churchill’s impatience undermined his capable leadership

General Auchinleck

• Strong strategic planner, effective defensively, methodical, kept morale high

• Halted German troops in 1942 but Churchill criticised his cation and delay

• Churchill believed he had a lack of initiative

• Removed in August 1942

• His removal created instability, but his work helped Montgomery succeed later on

General Montgomery

• Churchill supported his appointment in 1942

• Major successes in Second Battle of El Alemein - Churchill saw this as a turning point in the war

• Able to inspire troops and be offensive - Churchill admired this

• Tension increased later on - Churchill saw him as arrogant and slow in capitalising on successes

• Largely positive impact - delivered Churchill’s desire for dramatic victories and boosted morale

Date - Fall of Singapore

Feb 1942

The Meditteranean’s importance to Britain

• Vital trade route and link to India & the Far East 

• Britain controlled the Suez Canal, key to defending oil supplies in Middle East - losing this would be disastrous

• controlled Palestine, had a colony in Somalia, dominated Iraq

Threat of Italy in the Mediterranean

• There had always been a possibility of Italy becoming allies with Germany

• Became real when Italy joined the war in June 1940 & helped invade Northern France

• Italy had troops in North Africa

How the threat to the Med increased from 1942

• Germany went to war against Russia in 1941 & by 1942 had pushed Russian forces back to the South

• If Germany attacked North Africa and reached Egypt, they could link with Russian forces & secure oil fields in Russia & Middle East

Why did Churchill send troops to Greece in 1940?

• Wanted to achieve a Balkan front (Yugoslavia, Greece, and Türkiye) to increase British influence in south-east Europe

• Not successful - the Balkans were harder to win than expected

• Britain defeated in Greece & forced out (under command of General Wavell)

Why did the Med become a lower priority after the USA entered the war in Dec 1941?

• The US’s military favoured rapid invasion of Northern France

• US general George Marshall saw little point in wasting resources in the Med

• Wanted to take pressure of Russia by opening a Western Front

How was the Med secured by 1943?

• Italy had become weak & was no longer a serious threat

• Britain had naval supremacy & considerable air power

Arguments for area bombing of Germany

• Considerable public pressure to bring the war to Germany & take revenge for the Blitz

• Hope & evidence it would destroy German morale & its ability to provide more armed forces

• RAF Bomber Command had been created with area bombing in mind - wanted to show off its full potential

• USA supported the idea

Arguments against area bombing of Germany

• A specialist report in 1942 indicated bombing would be ineffective in significantly damaging German industry

• The Blitz hadn’t destroyed British morale - it might not destroy German morale either - there was strong support for Hitler & the war there

• Ethical & religious objections to bombing civilian

• (later argument) Europe would be destroyed - Britain would control ruined land & it would cause more problems/cost more in the long run

Date - Arthur Harris became head of Bomber Command, full-scale bombing of Germany began

Feb 1942

Date - Tehran Conference

Nov 1943

Date - D-Day landings

6 June 1944

Date - Liberation of Paris

August 1944

Britain’s changed role in the war by 1944-45

• Britain now had to agree strategy with the USA

• Britain were the least powerful of the Grand Alliance

• After D-Day, Britain had been experiencing heavy losses

Churchill’s status in the Big Three

• Found himself side-lined

• Had to concede to Stalin at Yalta - accepted that USSR could take eastern Poland (against 1939 British aim to protect Poland’s integrity & independence)

• Frustrated that Roosevelt wasn't concerned at possibility of Europe being dominated by Russia after the war

Lack of clarity over war aims by 1944

• The war head started to defend Poland, but by 1944 Poland’s wishes were being ignored - possibility of Russian control post-war

• The Empire was failing - fall of the East, and the USA didn’t support British imperialism

• Britain had initially been ‘civilised’ but this reputation ahd been damaged due to its bombing of German cities. The initial clear ‘Good vs Evil’ narrative of the war had become blurred

• The Allies military strategy was controlled by the USA

Date - Yalta Conference

Feb 1945

Date - VE Day

8 May 1945

Examples of social reform during the war

• Support for those affected by the Blitz - rest centres, meal services, Committee for the Homeless

• National Assistance - help given to the needy without the means test (abolished in 1941)

• Emergency Hospital Service and National Fire Service

• Free school meals, vaccine rollouts, free milk - reduced infant mortality

• Rail network nationalised

• Factory Acts 1940 - improved welfare

• Catering Wages Act 1942 and Wages council Act 1945 - improved wages for the low-paid

Increased attention on social reforms & Churchill’s attitude

• The public hoped that the war effort would be redirected to social reform after the war was over. Wanted rewards for the war effort, unlike the post-WWI struggles

• Churchill saw this as a distraction to the war effort

• The wartime coalition did begin planning reforms which could be implemented post-1945

Wartime Reports/Committees for post-war reconstruction

• 1941 Post War Problems Committee 

• 1942 Beveridge Report

• 1944 Education Act

• Papers on Land Use

• 1944 Town and Country Planning Act

The Beveridge Report

• Published Dec 1942, debated in House of Commons Feb 1943

• Author William Beveridge, Liberal Party member

• Addressed 5 main concerns - Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor, and Idleness

• Proposed the foundations for the NHS, National Insurance Scheme, expansion of state education, council housing schemes, Family Allowance, etc.

Education Act

• August 1944

• school leaving age raised to 15, then 16

• State schools ended fees

• Education divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary

• Free school meals & milk

• 11+ exam introduced - grammar school system

Reactions to the Beveridge Report

• Churchill expressed public concern at costs, but promised social reform post-war. Privately, very critical of Beveridge calling him “an awful windbag and a dreamer”

• Tories & Liberals accepted the principles of a “social service state” (Beveridge’s term)

• Labour thought the proposals did not go far enough to support the country

• Overall, there was a collective determination not to return to post-WWI unemployment, poverty, and depression in the 1930s

1945 General Election date

5 July 1945

1945 GE - Conservative’s campaign

• Strategy was to rely on Churchill’s victory; hoped the public would vote for him out of gratitude

• Relied on Churchill’s oratory skills

1945 GE - Labour’s campaign

• Campaigned mostly on the promise of social reforms - said the Conservatives would not deliver reform sufficiently

• Wanted to continue and build upon the socialism that had existed during the war

Churchill’s past & its effect on 1945 GE

• Regarded as anti-socialist (and made this clear in the election campaign)

• His reaction to the 1910 & 1926 Miner’s Strike - sent in troops 

• Time as Chancellor - blamed for unemployment & depression due to return to Gold Standard

• Military record still haunted him - Gallipoli, Norway

• Had always been connected to war - regarded as a warmonger among the left - voters in 1945 wanted peace, and he was seen as a war leader

• Obsessed with Empire still - the electorate didn’t care, they wanted to focus on domestic issues

Churchill during GE campaign

• wanted to delay election until victory in the Pacific was acheived

• Had never had to appeal to the electorate before - had been given the role of PM in 1939

• hard for him to appeal to working-class voters - he was from Victorian Aristocracy

• much better at foreign policy than domestic politics

• During campaign - fiercely anti-socialist; completely misjudged public mood

• Suggested there would be “Gestapo”- like control under a socialist government - widely criticised speech

Atlee during GE campaign

• Had been a very capable and popular deputy in wartime coalition government

• Socialist agenda appealed to the public post-war mood

• Mild-mannered, polite, modest - starkly contrasted Churchill and proved more relatable/popular among votersThe

The USSR’s impact on 1945 GE

They were regarded as an example of the positives of greater economic control & social reform by the state, which Labour promised