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Sensation
The activation of receptors in various sense organs, leading to the perception of stimuli.
Sensory sensation
biological, activate neural nerves/sensory neurons
Sensory Receptors
Specialized forms of neurons that respond to different kinds of energy rather than neurotransmitters.
Transduction
The process of converting outside stimuli into neural activity.
Just noticeable difference (jnd)
The minimum difference between two stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time, also known as just noticeable difference (jnd).
Absolute threshold
the smallest amount of energy needed for a person to consciously detect a stimulus 50% of the time it is present
Subliminal Stimuli
Stimuli that are below the level of conscious awareness but can still activate sensory receptors.
Limin
threshold
sublimin
below the threshold
Habituation
The brain's tendency to stop attending to constant, unchanging information.
Sensory Adaptation
tendency of sensory receptors cells to become less responsive to a stimulus that is unchanging
Microsaccades
Constant movement of the eyes; tiny little vibrations that people do not notice consciously
Prevent sensory adaptation to visual stimuli
Saccadic Movements
Brightness
Determined by the amplitude of light waves; higher amplitude results in brighter light.
Color or Hue
Determined by the length of light waves; longer wavelengths correspond to red, while shorter wavelengths correspond to blue.
Saturation
The purity of a color; mixing with black or gray reduces saturation.
Cornea
The clear membrane covering the eye that focuses light and protects it.
Lasik
vision - improving techniques that make small incisions in the cornea to change the focus in the eye
Aqueous Humor
Visual layer below cornea
Clear, watery fluid that is continually replenished
Supplies nourishment to the eye
Pupil
Hole through which light from the visual image enters the interior of the eye
Iris
Round muscle (the colored part of the eye) in which pupil is located
Can change the size of the pupil, letting more or less light into the eye
Help focus the image (squinting)
Lens
A clear structure behind the iris that finishes the focusing process of light.
Visual Accommodation
The change in thickness of the lens as the eye focuses on objects at varying distances.
Vitreous humor
Jelly-like fluid that also nourishes the eye and gives it shape
Nearsightedness or Myopia
The shape of the eye causes the focal point to fall short of the retina
Farsightedness or hyperopia
The focus points is behind the retina
Retina
The final stop for light in the eye
Photoreceptors that respond to various light waves
Rods
Visual sensory receptors found at the back of the retina
Responsible for noncolor sensitivity to low levels of light
Cones
Visual sensory receptors found at the back of the retina
Responsible of color vision and sharpness of vision
Blind Spot
Area in the retina where the axons of the three layers of retina cells exit the eye to form the optic nerve; insensitive to light
Light passess through ______ and _______ until it reaches and stimulates the rods and cones. Nerve impulses from the rods and cones travel along a nerve pathway to the brain.
ganglion
bipolar cells
Dark Adaptation (rod)
The recovery of the eye’s sensitivity to visual stimuli in darkness after exposure to bright lights
Light Adaptation (cones)
The recovery of the eye's sensitivity to visual stimuli in light after exposure to darkness.
Trichromatic Theory
A theory of color vision proposing three types of cones:red, blue, and green.
Opponent-Process Theory
Theory of color vision that proposes four primary colors with cones arranged in pairs: red and green, blue and yellow
Afterimages
images that occur when a visual sensation persists for a brief time even after the original stimulus is removed
Monochrome Colorblindness
A condition in which a person’s eyes either have no cones or have cones that are not working at all
Red-Green Colorblindness
Either the red or the green cones are not working
Sex-linked inheritance
Gene for color-deficient vision is recessive
one recessive chromosome
male
two recessive chromosome
female
sound
vibration of molecule of air
Wavelength
Interpreted as frequency or pitch of sound.
Amplitude
Interpreted as the volume of sound.
Purity
Interpreted as timbre
Hertz
Cycle or waves per second, a measurement of frequency
Auditory Canal
The short tunnel leading from the outer ear to the eardrum.
pinna
visible, external parts of the ear
Eardrum
Thin section of skin that tightly covers the opening into the middle part of the ear
Smallest bones in the human being
hammer
anvil
stirrup
Cochlea
A snail-shaped structure in the inner ear filled with fluid.
Organ of Corti
Rests in the basilar membrane
Contains receptor cells for sense of hearing
Auditory Nerve
Bundle of axons from the hair cells in the inner ear
Receives neural messages from the organ of Corti
Transduction
Transformation of the vibration of sound into neural message
Pitch
Psychological experience of sound that corresponds to the frequency of the sound waves
Place Theory
Theory of pitch that states that different pitches are experienced by the stimulation of hair cells in different locations on the organ of Corti
Frequency Theory
Theory of pitch that states that pitch is related to the speed of vibrations in the basilar membrane
Volley Principle
Theory of pitch that states that frequencies from about 400 Hz up to 4000 Hz causes the hair cells (auditory neurons) to fire in a volley pattern, or take turns in firing
Cochlear Implant
A microphone implanted just behind the ear the picks up sound from the surrounding environment
Taste Buds
Taste receptor cells in mouth; responsible for sense of taste
Gustation
The sensation of a taste
Five basic tastes
Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Brothy or Umami
Taste
called as chemical sense because it works with molecules of food
Olfaction
The sense of smell
Olfactory bulbs
Areas of the brain located just above the sinus cavity and just below the frontal lobes that receive info from the olfactory receptor cells
Somesthetic Senses
The body senses consisting of the skin senses, the kinesthetic senses, and the vestibular senses
soma
body
esthetic
feeling
skin senses
sensation of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain
Sensory receptors in the skin
Gate-control theory
pain signal must pass through a “gate” located in the spinal cord
Kinesthetic Sense
Sense of the location of body parts in relation to the ground and each other
Proprioceptive receptors (proprioceptors)
Vestibular Senses
The sensations of movement, balance, and body position.
sense of balance
Sensory Conflict Theory
An explanation of motion sickness in which the info from the eyes conflicts with the info from the vestibular senses
Perception
method by which the sensations experienced at any given moment are interpreted and organized in some meaningful fashion
Size Constancy
tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance
Shape Constancy
tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina
Brightness Constancy
tendency to perceive the apparent brightness of an object as the same even when the light conditions change
Gestalt
Put them together to perceive as a whole
Figure-ground
The tendency to perceive objects, or figures, as existing on a background
Reversible figures
Visual illusion in which the figure and ground can be reversed
Proximity
perceive objects that are close to each other as part of the same groupings
Similarity
perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group
Closure
Tendency to complete figures that are incomplete
Continuity
Tendency to perceive things as simply as possible with a continuous pattern rather than with a complex, broken up pattern
Contiguity
Tendency to perceive two things that happen close together in time being related
Depth Perception
The ability to perceive the world in three dimensions
Monocular Cues
Cues for perceiving depth based on one eye only
Linear perspective
tendency for parallel lines to appear to converge on each other
Relative size
Perception that occurs when objects that a person expects to be of a certain size appear to be small and are, therefore, assumed to be far away
Aerial (atmospheric) perspective
The haziness that surrounds objects that are farther away from the viewer, causing the distance to be perceived as greater
Texture gradient
tendency for textured surfaces to appear to become smaller and finer as distance from the viewer increases
Motion parallax
The perception of motion of objects in which close objects appear to move more quickly than objects that are farther away
ventriloquists
make vocalization without opening mouth
Binocular Cues
Cues for perceiving depth based on both eyes
Convergence
The rotation of the two eyes in their sockets to focus on a single object, resulting in greater convergence for closer objects and lesser convergence for closer objects and lesser convergence if objects are distant
Binocular disparity:
The difference in images between the two eyes, which is greater for objects that are close and smaller for distant objects
Hermann grid
Possibly due to the response of the primary visual cortex
Muller-Lyer illusion
Illusion of line length that is distorted by inward-turning or outward-turning corners on the ends of the lines, causing lines of equal length to appear to be different
Moon Illusion
The moon on the horizon appears to be larger than the moon in the sky
Autokinetic effect:
a small, stationary light in a darkened room will appear to move or drift bcs there are no surrounding cues to indicate that the light is not moving
Stroboscopic motion
Seen in motion pictures, in which a rapid series of still pictures will appear to be in motion
Individual features are put together