Hinduism

What is Sanatana Dharma, and how does it relate to the term “Hinduism”?

Sanatana Dharma means “the eternal duty” or “the eternal way.” It is the traditional name many Hindus use for their religion, focusing on timeless truths, moral duties, and harmony with the universe.
Hinduism is a more modern term grouping many Indian beliefs, traditions, gods, and practices. Sanatana Dharma is the original idea; Hinduism is the modern name.

What are samsara and moksha?

• Samsara: The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth for all living beings and the world.

• Moksha: Escape from samsara; spiritual freedom where the soul (Atman) unites with Brahman and no longer reincarnates.

Describe the role of karma in the cycle of reincarnation (samsara).

Karma means your actions have consequences.

• Good karma → better rebirth

• Bad karma → lower rebirth

Your karma decides your next life, including your caste, circumstances, and opportunities. Karma is linked to dharma: if you do your duty well, you gain good karma and can be reborn higher.

What is the goal of a Hindu’s life regarding samsara and moksha?

The goal is to escape samsara by living morally: doing good actions to gain good karma, following your dharma (duty), and respecting the gods. By understanding your true soul, you can reach moksha — complete peace, unity with Brahman, and freedom from rebirth.

What is the role of karma in the cycle of reincarnation (samsara)?

Karma = your actions and their consequences.

• Good karma → better rebirth, more opportunities, higher caste.

• Bad karma → lower rebirth, harder life circumstances.
  Karma is linked to dharma: doing your duty well creates good karma. Example: A student’s duty is to study diligently; a parent’s duty is to care for their children. Doing these duties well helps you progress toward moksha.

What are the three main paths (yogas) to achieving moksha?

a. Jnana Yoga – Path of Knowledge

• Focuses on studying sacred texts and thinking deeply about reality.

• Aims to understand that the self (Atman) is the same as the ultimate reality (Brahman).

• Often practiced by philosophers, monks, and people seeking wisdom.

b. Karma Yoga – Path of Action

• Follow your dharma (duty) without expecting rewards.

• Selfless actions purify the mind and reduce the ego.

• Everyday good actions (helping others, working honestly) are spiritual practice.

c. Bhakti Yoga – Path of Devotion

• Involves love and surrender to a personal god (like Vishnu, Shiva, or Devi).

• Includes singing hymns, praying, and rituals.

• One of the most popular paths because it is open to everyone.

What is the Trimurti?

The Trimurti represents the three main cosmic functions of the universe:

• Brahma – the Creator
  Creates the world and everything in it. Often shown with four heads.

• Vishnu – the Preserver
  Protects the universe and maintains cosmic order (dharma)Vishnu has many avatars (like Rama and Krishna) who come to earth when evil rises.

• Shiva – the Destroyer/Transformer
  Destroys the old so new creation can begin. Represents change, meditation, and spiritual power.

Together, the Trimurti symbolizes the cycle of creation, preservation, and destruction, which repeats endlessly in Hindu belief.

What are the Vedas and Upanishads? Why are they important scriptures?

• The Vedas (earliest Indian religion) mean “knowledge” and were passed down orally until around 1100–1200 BCE. There are four Vedas, and the Rigveda is the most important (1028 hymns).

  • Religion focused on rituals and sacrifices to gain wealth, long life, and strong children.

  • Main gods were Varuna (order) and Indra (war and rain).

  • No belief in rebirth, karma, or samsara yet.

• The Upanishads (from around 1000 BCE) introduced new spiritual ideas. People searched for deeper meaning through meditation.
  Key ideas:

  • Atman (eternal soul)

  • Brahman (universal soul)

  • Tat tvam asi – the soul and universe are one

  • Maya (illusion)

  • Jnana yoga (path of knowledge)
    These texts shifted religion from rituals to wisdom and self-understanding, becoming the foundation of Hinduism.

Explain the concept of Atman and its relationship to Brahman.

• Atman: The inner self or soul — unchanging and eternal.

• Brahman: The universal soul or ultimate reality — everything comes from Brahman.

• Relationship: Hindu teachings say Atman = Brahman, meaning every person’s soul is part of the same universal reality.

• Maya: The illusion that makes people forget this truth and identify only with their physical body and the material world.

• Goal: Understanding the unity of Atman and Brahman leads to moksha, freedom from rebirth.

. What is the significance of dharma (duty, righteousness) in a Hindu’s daily life?

• Dharma guides how a person should live morally and responsibly.

• It includes values like honesty, non-violence, respect, self-control, and helping others.

• Dharma depends on age, family role, profession, and life situation.

• By following dharma, a Hindu earns good karma, creating harmony in life and future lives.

• Breaking dharma leads to disorder and suffering.

Describe the caste system (varna). Is it still practiced in modern India?

Traditional varna system:

1. Brahmins – priests, teachers, scholars

2. Kshatriyas – warriors, rulers, political leaders

3. Vaishyas – merchants, landowners, traders

4. Shudras – workers, service providers

• Dalits were outside the system and faced discrimination.

Today:

• Caste discrimination is officially illegal in India (after the 1950 Constitution).

• Urban areas have more equality.

• However, in rural regions, caste-based traditions and prejudices still exist.

• Caste can still influence marriage choices, social groups, and politics.

What are some of the main Hindu festivals?

Diwali – Festival of Lights

• Celebrates the victory of good over evil and light over darkness.

• Houses are decorated with lamps, candles, and fireworks.

• Also marks the return of Rama to Ayodhya in the Ramayana.

Holi – Festival of Colors

• Celebrates love, joy, and the arrival of spring.

• People throw colored powder and water at each other.

• Connected to the story of Krishna and Radha.

Navaratri/Durga Puja

• A nine-night festival honoring the goddess Durga.

• Celebrates victory over the buffalo-demon Mahishasura.

Ganesh Chaturthi

• Birthday of Ganesha, the god of wisdom and new beginnings.

• Large statues of Ganesha are worshipped and later immersed in wate

What is the essence of Hinduism, and how do its main ideas connect?

Hinduism, or Sanatana Dharma (“the eternal way”), teaches that reality has a deeper spiritual layer. The universe is held together by Brahman, the ultimate divine reality. Every living being has an Atman, an eternal soul that is actually a part of Brahman. Even though people look different on the outside, at the deepest level all life is spiritually connected.

Humans normally cannot see this truth because of Maya, the illusion that makes temporary things seem permanent. Maya creates the feeling of separation between people, which hides the unity of all life. This misunderstanding keeps souls trapped in Samsara, the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.

Within Samsara, each person’s life is shaped by Karma, the natural law of cause and effect. Good actions produce good outcomes and can lead to a more fortunate rebirth. Bad actions create suffering in this life or the next. Karma is not punishment—it is simply how the universe keeps balance and gives the soul chances to grow.

To live correctly, Hindus follow Dharma, which means duty, ethics, and responsibility. Dharma can look different depending on a person’s role, stage of life, or background, but its purpose is always the same: living in harmony with the moral and cosmic order. Doing your dharma helps create good karma and supports spiritual progress.

Hindus also follow different spiritual paths, called yogas, to move closer to liberation.

• Jnana Yoga: gaining spiritual knowledge and understanding the soul

• Karma Yoga: selfless action and doing one’s duty

• Bhakti Yoga: devotion and love for a personal god

These paths help a person see through Maya and understand the deeper truth of existence.

The gods in Hinduism—such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi—are different expressions of Brahman. They show qualities like protection, transformation, and creativity. Worship practices like puja, meditation, festivals, and pilgrimage help people connect with the divine and support spiritual development.

Hindu scriptures guide this entire journey.

• The Vedas focus on rituals and cosmic order.

• The Upanishads explore the soul, Brahman, and the nature of reality.

• The Bhagavad Gita teaches how to live spiritually, even in everyday duties.

The final goal of Hindu life is Moksha—freedom from Samsara. Moksha happens when a person realises that Atman = Brahman, expressed in the phrase Tat Tvam Asi (“You are that”). It means that spiritual truth is already inside every person; they only need to recognise it.

In short: Hinduism teaches that life is a spiritual journey. By following Dharma, understanding Karma, and practising the yogas, the soul slowly overcomes Maya, escapes Samsara, and returns to its true nature—unity with Brahman.

Hinduism (Origins):

Hinduism began between 1500–500 BCE, making it one of the world’s oldest religions. It developed from early Indian cultures such as the Indus Valley Civilization and the traditions of the Aryans, who introduced Sanskrit and early ritual practices.

Indus Valley Civilization:

An ancient culture in modern India and Pakistan known for advanced urban planning, organised streets, drainage systems, and early religious ideas connected to nature, purity, and ritual.

Aryans:

A group who arrived in India and contributed to early Hindu culture. They spoke Sanskrit, wrote the Vedas, and may have influenced the early version of the caste system (though very different from today’s system).

Sanskrit:

The sacred language of Hindu scriptures, especially the Vedas. It is used for rituals, chants, and ancient texts.

Samsara:

The endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth for all living beings and even the universe. Souls move through many lifetimes until they learn and grow spiritually.

Moksha:

Spiritual liberation from samsara. It is achieved when the soul (Atman) realises its unity with Brahman, reaching ultimate peace, freedom, and understanding.

Karma:

The law of cause and effect. Good actions create good karma and lead to better future lives; bad actions cause negative karma and rebirth in lower conditions. Karma shapes the soul’s entire journey.

Dharma:

A person’s duty, moral responsibility, and role in life. Dharma depends on age, caste, gender, and life stage. Doing your dharma correctly creates good karma and brings you closer to moksha.

Atman:

The individual, eternal soul within each person. It never dies and moves through samsara. It remains the same soul, even though it passes through different bodies and forms.

Brahman:

The universal soul and ultimate reality that exists in everything. Brahman is not a “god” but the truth behind all existence — the cosmic essence of the universe.

Tat Tvam Asi (“You are that”):

A teaching from the Upanishads meaning Atman and Brahman are the same. Everything and everyone is connected as one universal reality.

Maya (Illusion):

The idea that the physical world hides true reality. People focus on temporary things and “shadows” of truth. To reach moksha, one must see beyond illusion.

Vishnu:

The Preserver Why important:
He keeps the universe in balance and comes down to earth as avatars (like Krishna and Rama) whenever evil grows.

Why devotees follow him:
People see him as protective, calm, and caring. Devotees feel he helps during chaos and guides them toward good choices.

What he gives:

• Protection from negative forces

• Stability in difficult times

• Hope that good will win

• A gentle, comforting presence

Shiva

Why important:
Shiva destroys what is harmful so that positive change can happen. He stands for meditation, inner strength, and renewal.

Why devotees follow him:
They feel he accepts everyone, even those who struggle or feel broken. He is seen as powerful but also deeply compassionate.

What he gives:

• Inner peace and calm

• Strength to face challenges

• Freedom from ego, stress, and fear

• A fresh start after hard times

Ganesha

Remover of Obstacles Why important:
He is the son of Shiva and Parvati, and one of the most worshipped gods. His elephant head stands for wisdom and intelligence.

Why devotees follow him:
People pray to Ganesha before starting anything new — exams, travels, jobs, or big decisions. He is friendly, approachable, and brings luck.

What he gives:

• Confidence and success in new beginnings

• Help with removing obstacles and problems

• Wisdom for making good decisions

• A feeling of support and encouragement

Krishna:

The Wise Friend

• Another avatar of Vishnu.

• Playful, loving, and full of wisdom.

• In the Bhagavad Gita, he teaches about duty, devotion, and acting without selfishness.

• People feel he is like a friend or guide who helps them make good choices and understand life.

Rama:

The Perfect Hero

• One of Vishnu’s avatars.

• A brave, loyal, and moral king from the story Ramayana.

• Think of him as the ideal person, someone who always does the right thing even when it’s hard.

Parvati / Durga / Kali

The Powerful Women

• Parvati = loving mother, family care

• Durga = warrior who fights evil

• Kali = raw power, time, and big life changes

• Together they show that women (Shakti) are the creative and powerful force of the universe.

Brahma

The Creator

• Makes the universe, but doesn’t maintain or destroy it.

• Part of the Trimurti:

  • Brahma = create

  • Vishnu = preserve

  • Shiva = destroy/transform

• Think of it as the cycle of life: start, maintain, change.

Why people follow them:

• Each god shows a specific quality of life (love, duty, knowledge, protection).

• Hindus worship the gods that reflect their needs, identity, or family tradition.

• Worship is shaped by:

  • family tradition

  • region (example: South India worships Shiva more)

  • gender or occupation

  • village vs. city traditions

  Local deities are also important—especially in villages.

Vishnu/Rama → protection, morals, guidance

• Krishna → wisdom, love, life guidance, friendship

• Shiva → inner strength, peace, transformation

• Ganesha → help with new beginnings, obstacles

• Shakti/Parvati/Durga/Kali → creative power, protection, courage

Caste System (Varna):

A social and religious hierarchy dividing society into four major groups. It is birth-based and shapes a person’s duties (dharma), opportunities, and social expectations. Although illegal today, it still influences daily life in many parts of India.

Brahmins

• From the mouth of Purusha.

• Teach, learn, and perform religious rituals.

• Guide society with knowledge and wisdom.

• Example: A family of priests who run temples or teach sacred texts, or a teacher who passes down knowledge to students.

Kshatriyas

(Warriors & Rulers): From the arms of Purusha.

• Protect society, fight for justice, and lead fairly.

• Their dharma is to defend the community and maintain order.

• Example: A politician, army officer, or king/queen responsible for governing and protecting people.

Vaishyas

Farmers, Merchants, Traders

• From the thighs of Purusha.

• Work in farming, business, and trade.

• Keep society’s economy and material needs running.

• Example: A shopkeeper, farmer, or entrepreneur providing food, goods, or money for the community.

Shudras

Workers & Servants

• From the feet of Purusha.

• Perform labour, craftwork, and service for the other castes.

• Essential for society to function day-to-day.

• Example: A carpenter, construction worker, or cook who helps the community function smoothly.

Dalits

(Previously “Untouchables”)

• Outside the main four varnas.

• Historically did “unclean” work like waste collection or leatherwork.

• Today, discrimination is illegal, but social prejudice sometimes remains.

• Example: A person from a Dalit background might now work as a teacher, driver, or government employee, but in some villages, old prejudices may still influence jobs or social interactions.

Karma & Caste

• Your actions in past lives influence your caste.

• Good karma → higher caste next life; bad karma → lower caste.

• Example: Following your dharma honestly could be seen as improving your next life’s status.

Dharma & Caste

• Each caste has specific duties (dharma).

• Doing your dharma well creates good karma and keeps society harmonious.

• Example: A Kshatriya soldier protects the village, fulfilling his duty.

Caste Today

• Discrimination is illegal, but caste still affects marriage, jobs, and social life, especially in villages.

• Government gives reserved seats in schools, colleges, and jobs for disadvantaged castes like Dalits.

• In cities, caste matters less, but family traditions or social networks can still follow it.

• Example: A Dalit student can now attend university through a quota, something that was almost impossible before.

What will happen to the caste system in the future?

In the future, the caste system will probably become less important. People will care more about what someone can do, their skills, and education, instead of the family they are born into. Laws and social changes are helping reduce discrimination. Many young people already see caste as less important, so society may treat everyone more equally. The focus may shift to personal ability, hard work, and fairness rather than birth.

Vedas:

The oldest and most sacred Hindu scriptures, meaning “knowledge.” They were originally memorised and later written down around 1100–1200 BCE. They focus on rituals, sacrifices, hymns, and ways to please the gods. The Vedas form the foundation of early Indian religion before concepts like karma or samsara developed.

Rigveda:

The most important of the four Vedas, containing 1,028 hymns. It praises gods like Indra and Varuna and focuses on maintaining cosmic order through ritual and prayer.

Upanishads:

Later philosophical texts (around 1000 BCE) that ask deeper questions about the purpose of life. They shift focus from rituals to meditation, self-knowledge, and spiritual understanding. They teach key concepts like Atman, Brahman, Maya, and the unity of the soul with the universe.

Key Teachings of the Upanishads:

– Atman: The eternal soul
– Brahman: Ultimate reality
– Tat Tvam Asi: “You are that” (soul = universe)
– Maya: Illusion hiding the truth
– Jnana Yoga: Path of wisdom
These ideas transformed Hinduism into a more philosophical and introspective religion.

Maya (in the Upanishads):

The illusion that hides true reality. People mistake the temporary world for the ultimate truth. Understanding Maya helps the soul move toward moksha.

The Bhagavad Gita:

A part of the Mahabharata that is one of Hinduism’s most important texts. It is a dialogue between Arjuna, a warrior, and Krishna, who teaches him about duty, devotion, and spiritual paths. The Gita blends philosophy, ethics, and worship.

Teachings from the Bhagavad Gita:

You must follow your dharma, even when it is difficult.
– Bhakti yoga (devotion) is a powerful path to God.
– Act without attachment to results.
– God is personal and accessible through faith and love.

Purpose of Hindu Texts:

Together, the Vedas, Upanishads, Gita, and epics create a complete picture of Hindu belief:
– Rituals and cosmic order (Vedas)
– Wisdom and self-realisation (Upanishads)
– Duty and devotion (Gita)
– Moral stories and cultural values (Epics)

Purusha Myth – Origins of Varna

• Castes come from different parts of the cosmic being Purusha:

  • Mouth → Brahmins (wisdom)

  • Arms → Kshatriyas (strength)

  • Thighs → Vaishyas (support)

  • Feet → Shudras (service)

• Symbolises that every part of society has a role, all working together.

• Example: Farmers (Vaishyas) feed everyone, soldiers (Kshatriyas) protect them, priests (Brahmins) guide them, and workers (Shudras) keep daily life running.

Indicators of Caste:

A person’s last name, traditional job, regional customs, and family background often reveal their caste identity.

Why the Caste System Persisted:

It survived because it was tied to religion, tradition, and social stability. People accepted it as their destiny, believing life was a step in the journey toward moksha.

What is the Ashrama system in Hinduism?

A life path divided into four stages, each with duties, goals, and spiritual development. It balances personal growth, responsibilities, and spirituality.

What is the student life stage called

Brahmacharya The student stage of life. People learn from a teacher (guru), study religious teachings, practice discipline, and build good character. Today, it is like school or university and focuses on learning and personal growth.

Criticisms of the Brahmacharya stage?

Young people may feel limited from working, forming relationships, or exploring hobbies. It can create stress because of too much focus on studies and rules. Some say it doesn’t fit modern life where experience and emotional growth are important.

What is the householders stage called

GṛhasthaThe householder stage. Focus is on family, marriage, work, and helping society. It usually starts when a person gets married. This stage is about responsibility and being an active member of the community.

what is the renunciation stage.

The renunciation stage. People focus completely on spiritual life. The goal is to reach moksha, which is freedom from the cycle of birth and rebirth and unity with the true self (atman).

What is The retirement stage called

Vānaprastha The retirement or withdrawal stage. People slowly step back from work and family duties. They focus more on thinking about life, practicing spirituality, and giving advice to younger people.

What is the main purpose of the Ashrama system?

To guide people through life in a way that balances duties, personal growth, and spiritual development.

What are the Rites of Passage?

Special religious ceremonies that celebrate important moments in life. They help guide and prepare people for the next stage in life and spiritual growth.

Why do Hindus perform Rites of Passage?

To guide people, help them grow spiritually, and prepare them for life stages. They also help people move closer to spiritual freedom.

What is an important Rite of Passage in adulthood?

Marriage – it starts the householder stage. It creates a sacred partnership and helps people support family, society, and spiritual growth.

What Rites of Passage happen at death?

Last rites – they guide the soul to the next life. Usually done quickly after death. Cremation is common, using fire to purify the body and release the soul.