Global Issues Test 1 Unit 4 Understanding Terrorism

Afghanistan; Iraq 

he U.S. put together an international coalition to go after al Qaeda and oust the Taliban from government in ________, entering the longest war in its history. By 2003, the United States and a much narrower coalition had more controversially invaded ___ in pursuit of supposed Iraqi weapons of mass destruction and Saddam Hussein.

Afghanistan, Iraq, and Ukraine

Terrorism can be difficult to define and continues to change due to many drivers of instability and major security concerns in every region of the world. What three challenging cases do we focus on to get a better sense of the 21st century landscape

Al Qaeda 

On September 11, the United States was attacked by a transnational, non-state actor, __ _____, an international terrorist group headed by Saudi millionaire Osama bin Laden. The dramatic and unique nature of these horrific attacks led to a multifaceted and global U.S. military response, as the country took on the open-ended war on terror and a more traditional security lens. Yet, as noted in the BBC article linked below, written the year after the attack, the concept of terrorism is difficult even for the UN to define.

-generally political in nature

-seeks to send a message to a larger audience through the selection of victims; often civilians 

-

What are common attributes of terrorism?

globalization 

Transnational, non-state terrorist organizations—from al Qaeda to drug cartels—pose a particularly dangerous threat in the 21st century as they leverage the platform of ________ and operate across borders and regions.

nationalism; religion 

While any group—religious or secular, left- or right-wing, international or domestic—can use terrorism, those that mix ________ and/or ______ motivation to inspire others to violence are of particular concern. And the battle against terrorism is as complex as terrorism itself, requiring a mixture of responses if we seek to build long-term international security.

Hamas

On October 7, 2023, ____, which governed Gaza but is considered a terrorist organization by Israel, the United States, the European Union, and others, initiated an unprecedented, terrorist attack on Israel, killing more than 1,200 people and taking some 250 hostages.

-Israel responded to this horrific attack with massive air and ground military operations, sparking a tremendous humanitarian crisis and killing well over 40,000 people in Gaza.

Hezbollah

The war has spread beyond Gaza, with Israeli military operations targeting ________(another non-state organization) inside Lebanon standing out (after _______ strikes in Israel in support of Hamas).

-The battle against terrorism is as complex as terrorism itself

-Terrorist violence is generally political¸ seeking to send a message to a larger audience

-Terrorists attacks in recent decades have often been concentrated against civilians

-Transnational¸ non-state terrorist organizations pose a particularly dangerous threat in the 21st century

-Groups that mix nationalism and/or religious motivation to inspire others to violence are of specific concern

Al Qaeda

Which of the following non-state actors was responsible for the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States?

“The level of anger against the U.S. across the Arab world … is palpable”

“The threat (on the United States) from foreign terrorists has risen to a whole other level after October 7”

“There is a linkage between every single bomb that is dropped in Gaza and the U.S.”

Which of the following statements were made by former U.S. officials about the Gaza conflict’s connection to the United States?

When Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu decides it is over

As asserted by a former State Department official in the 60-minutes video, when will the war in Gaza end?

“Rule of Terror” (some use the term “Reign of Terror”)

Which term originated during the French Revolution to describe the use of terror by the state?

The assassination of political leaders, such as with Austria-Hungary’s Archduke Franz Ferdinand

In the 19th century, terrorism found a new “face” and became associated with:

A new “face” of terrorism tied to attacks on civilians

What did the September 1972 murder of eleven Israeli athletes at the Olympic Games in Munich help symbolize?

The rise of religiously motivated terrorism

What significant change in terrorism occurred in the late 20th and early 21st centuries?

0

How many of the 189 member states of the UN opposed the U.S.’s right to take military action in Afghanistan after 9/11?

Pashtun

Migrants, merchants, and armies traveling the Silk Road shaped the country’s complex history. Today, the country’s ____ groups, who were originally identified as the “Afghans,” form the largest proportion of the Afghan population, roughly 48 percent (CIA World Factbook). There are also significant populations of Tajiks, Hazaras, Uzbeks, and others. Most of Afghanistan’s ethnic groups have long stressed their unique identities and independence, undermining the formation of a common national identity.

British

rom the Great Game to the Soviet Invasion. In the mid-18th century, an Afghan kingdom under Pashtun Ahmed Shah united the region and asserted its authority into India .By the turn of the century, the British were gaining control across the South Asian subcontinent. The Russians, who were acquiring influence in Central Asia, soon engaged in a contest with the _____ for influence and control in Afghanistan. The Afghans, for their part, jockeyed to maintain their independence in this “Great Game” between powers. Only through massive bloodshed did the British find the outer reaches of their “British Raj” in India, the “Crown Jewel” of their global empire. There were two Anglo-Afghan Wars in the 19th century.

Durand

After the Second Anglo-Afghan War in 1880, Afghanistan was established as a buffer state between the Russian and British empires, in an area much smaller than Afghan leaders had envisioned. Britain still controlled the area’s foreign policy. Importantly, the line between British India and Afghanistan, known as the ____ Line, divided the fiercely independent Pashtun peoples, who essentially ignored the border and sought to maintain their autonomy, as many do today.

In May 1919, Afghanistan initiated the brief Third Anglo-Afghan War, which ended in a stalemate. While the treaty ending this war did not solve the dispute over the divided Pashtun territories, Afghanistan’s independence was recognized. Over the next ten years, Afghan leader Amanullah set out to modernize his country, introducing what for Afghanistan were radical reforms, including loosening the requirement that Afghan women wear the burka, or full-length veil, and taking steps to professionalize the military. These measures offended religious and ethnic leaders across Afghan society, and Amanullah was forced to flee the country in January 1929.

U.S

A period of instability ensued until Muhammad Zahir Shah became king in 1933. Zahir remained on the throne for the next forty years, often ruling in conjunction with powerful relatives. The Afghans stressed their neutrality in WWII and after the war turned to the __ . for assistance during a short period of liberalization.

Soviet Union

In 1950, as bilateral tensions worsened between Pakistan and Afghanistan, Pakistan cut off oil shipments to Afghanistan. In turn, Afghanistan signed a major trade agreement with its northern neighbor, the ____ ____, a move which started an Afghan shift toward the Soviet camp in the developing Cold War. Pakistan moved closer to the ____ ___.

Constitutional monarchy

By mid-1953, younger members in the royal family challenged King Zahir’s powerful uncles, who had been running the country. In September of that year, Mohammad Daoud, the king’s cousin and brother-in-law, took control and spent the next ten years trying to gain self-determination for Pashtun areas in Pakistan, moving closer to the Soviets, and attempting to slowly reform the country’s economy and society. By 1963, contentious relations with Pakistan were so undermining the Afghan economy that King Zahir asked for Daoud’s resignation. Zahir took control, and in 1964 he oversaw the writing of a constitution that established a _________ ______.

Under the constitutional monarchy with free and fair elections between 1965 and 1969 most power remained with the king. Then 1973 the King was out of the country and Daoud lead an almost bloodless coup, establishing a dictatorial government. 

Christmas Day

Daoud was somewhat less favorable toward the Soviets, as well as less adamant with respect to the divided-Pashtun issue, than his first time in power. The country’s communists were gaining strength. In April 1978, Daoud launched a crackdown against the communist left-leaning officers killed him. The communists took control but quickly feel into political infighting. They tried to implement sweeping reforms that were opposed by the conservative, Islamic elite. As the country fell into bloodshed, the soviets first tried to influence events and invaded the country altogether on this day in 1979.

mujahideen

The soviets took Kabul, the capital, and installed a soviet governemnt. They didn’t have much support within the highly diverse and factionalized country. Roughly 120,000 Soviet troops eventually occupied Afghanistan, meeting fierce opposition from rebels known as the ________ (Muslim holy warriors), who were in reality a mix of Islamist groups and tribal warlords. The ________were supported by the United States, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Iran, and China.

Soviet War in Afghanistan 

The Soviets used sophisticated equipment and tactics, but the opposition had the sympathy of most of the local population, was far more familiar with the country’s landscape, and was well armed by powerful backers. The Soviet war in Afghanistan is known as the “Soviet Vietnam,” and proved a humiliating defeat. It is seen as an important factor in the subsequent demise of the Soviet Union. It was also a devastating conflict for Afghanistan: roughly 4.5 million Afghans fled the country to Iran or Pakistan; more than 1 million were killed; much of the country’s infrastructure was destroyed.

1991

-reform minded Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in 1985, he began to pull Soviet troops out of Afghanistan (completed in 1989)

-the fighting continued between mujahideen and the Soviet government with both sides continuing to receive support from the opposing superpowers

- In what year did the US and Soviets agree to end their proxy assistance and the communist government feel to a collection of mujahideen groups, which excluded Pashtun leaders from government?

-Rival forces almost immediately opposed the new government, as warlordism and factional fighting continued to ravage the country.

The taliban

The _____ and the United States Longest War. In 1994, a radical, Pashtun-dominated, Islamist movement called the Taliban rose against the Afghan government.

-condemned the country’s corruption and warlordism, and saw their popularity increase within the exhausted population.

-Armed by Pakistan, they steadily gained territory, taking Kabul in September 1996.

-moved to establish a radical Islamist state as the fighting continued. By 1999, the Taliban held 90 percent of Afghan territory, being opposed only by the Northern Alliance, an entrenched group of forces in the north.

Kite flying, alcohol, movies, television, dancing, and music, and education for girls 

In the 1990s, what was banned by the Taliban’s Ministry for Ordering What Is Right and Forbidding What Is Wrong?

Al Qaeda

The Taliban provided sanctuary for_____, the international terrorist group headed by Saudi millionaire Osama bin Laden. This group had engaged in several terrorist attacks on U.S. targets, including bombings of two U.S. embassies in Africa in 1998, which led to U.S. cruise missile strikes on terrorist training camps inside Afghanistan.

Northern Alliance

al Qaeda’s most dramatic assault came on September 11, 2001, when its operatives hijacked four commercial jetliners and used them as weapons to attack the World Trade Center Twin Towers in New York and the Pentagon in Washington, with one plane crashing into a field in Pennsylvania. As the world expressed anger and shock, Taliban leader Mullah Muhammad Omar refused demands to turn over bin Laden. By October 2001, the U.S. had pulled together an international coalition and initiated military operations. _______ ______forces worked with the international coalition. The outgunned Taliban were routed and swept from power by December 2001.

Hamid Karzai

Negotiations sponsored by the UN then led to the establishment of an interim government under Pashtun Hamid Karzai. An international peacekeeping force started the complex task of establishing law and order, and international aid donors started to send relief supplies. In April 2002, former king Muhammad Zahir Shah, who had been living in exile in Italy since 1973, returned to convene a loya jirga, or a grand council meeting of the country’s many factions. This loya jirga formally elected Karzai interim president, and by October 2004 ____ ____ had been elected to a 5-year term under a new constitution.

opium

Despite some early successes in overthrowing the Taliban, establishing an elected government, rebuilding the country’s shattered economy, and initiating important social changes such as improving health care and allowing for girls’ education, by 2006 a Taliban insurgency was intensifying, fueled by the ____trade which continued to flourish, particularly in Taliban controlled areas

withdrawal

In 2010, hoping to retake the advantage, President Obama “surged” U.S. forces in the country to roughly 100,000 troops, the highest level to date. On May 2, 2011, Osama bin Laden, who had evaded capture, was seized in Pakistan by U.S. Navy Seals and subsequently killed. The U.S. soon sought to drawdown its troops and try to shift responsibility to the Afghan security forces it had been training; however, the Taliban continued to gain ground. Peace talks between the first Trump administration and the Taliban led to a 2020 peace agreement, setting a timeline for U.S. ______.

2.3 Trillion 

In April 2021, President Biden announced that the U.S. would withdraw by August 31, 2021. But as U.S. forces departed, the Taliban launched an offensive that took control of the country on August 15, 2021, in the face of crumbling resistance from Afghan security forces and a chaotic U.S. exit. Overall, the U.S. spent roughly $ _______$ in Afghanistan during the war. Roughly 176,000 Afghans were killed, as well as over 2,300 U.S. soldiers (Brown University, 2023). The Afghan people have faced severe humanitarian concerns under strict Taliban rule since the U.S. departure.

Durand Line

The border between British India and Afghanistan, now Pakistan and Afghanistan, dividing the Pashtun people

U.S. embassy bombings in Africa in 1998

Which of the following attacks was al Qaeda responsible for before it carried out the 9/11 attacks on the United States?

The opposition was well armed by powerful backers, including the US 

-The mujahideen was far more familiar with the country’s landscape 

-They lacked the support of most of the local population 

What are reasons the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan turned into the “Soviet Vietnam

The opium trade

What helped fuel the Taliban’s insurgency against U.S. forces during the Afghan War?

100,000 troops

With President Obama’s “surge” in 2010, the height of the United States’ military presence in Afghanistan was roughly __________.

The Taliban

Which of the following returned to power when the United States withdrew its last forces from Afghanistan in 2021?

-Girls no longer had the freedom to go to school

-Women and girl’s rights quickly deteriorated

-The Taliban retook control of Afghanistan

Which of the following was a direct consequence of the U.S. troop withdrawal from Afghanistan in 2021?

The Taliban regime was giving refuge to al Qaeda

Why did the United States wage war in Afghanistan when al Qaeda carried out the 9/11 terrorist attacks?

Despite U.S. leaders providing years of positive assessments about the war in Afghanistan, there were clear warnings that it was not going well

What was the main point of the “Afghanistan Papers”?

They could not shoot straight and were illiterate, and their leaders were corrupt

What did U.S. military trainers privately say about the Afghan soldiers they were training during the Afghan War?

The U.S. did not understand the country and there was no strategy

In “The Afghanistan Papers,” what did U.S. generals, ambassadors, and others bluntly say?

“Like being in a jail, but the prison is your home”

How is the life of women in Afghanistan today described in the PBS Newshour video?

A.Q. Khan 

What Pakistani scientist used information he had stolen while working with a European consortium helped Pakistan develop nuclear weapons. He also shared his research with Iran, north Korea, and Libya which he claimed to do with the knowledge of the Pakistani government. 

-India first tested a nuclear device in 1974 and formally declared itself a nuclear state after additional tests in 1998. India’s longtime strategic rival Pakistan also tested nuclear weapons in 1998, given the technology acquired by A.Q. Khan

weapons proliferation

Libya eventually ended its nuclear ambitions, but the nuclear programs in North Korea and Iran remain of significant international concern. This example shows how weapons and _______ ________remain a central factor in any discussions of war, terrorism, or other security issues.

Weapons of Mass Destruction

includes nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons

conventional weapons 

weapons category there is differentiation between heavy weapons (weapons used in large scale combat and generally requiring a crew, including tanks, combat helicopters, fighter jets, aircraft carriers, etc.) and small arms and light weapons (SALWs, weapons used in war but also in crime, insurgencies, and other violent activities, including handguns, rifles, submachine guns, grenade launchers, etc.).

World War 1

What war saw the first large-scale use of chemical weapons—or toxic chemical substances meant to cause significant death and injury—including mustard gas, chlorine, and phosgene.

Chemical weapons 

Notable examples since include Saddam Hussein’s use of mustard gas, sarin gas, and other agents again Iraq’s Kurdish population and during the Iran-Iraq War in the 1980s, a 1995 sarin gas subway attack in Tokyo, Japan, and the Bashar al-Assad regime in Syria’s use of differing chemical agents against opposition forces in the 2010s.

Biological weapons

The use of bacteria, viruses, and other living pathogens that can also cause significant death and injury—was seen with Japanese experiments using plague and cholera on Chinese citizens during World War II, as well as in more recent years with the mailing of letters laced with anthrax to U.S. politicians and media outlets after 9/11, amongst other examples.

Manhattan

The first nuclear weapon was created through the United States’ _______ Project during WWII. Led by Robert Oppenheimer, the project completed its first test on July 16, 1945, and by August 6 the U.S. had dropped a bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. On August 9, a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan, and on August 14, 1945, the Japanese surrendered. Please watch the following

atomic; hydrogen 

Importantly, the first nuclear weapons were _____, which though destructive enough to ravage entire cities were soon surpassed by _____nuclear weapons, which are vastly more devastating

Mutual Assured destruction

The Soviet Union detonated its first nuclear weapon in 1949, and during the Cold War the U.S. and Soviets engaged in an arms race, developing over 30,000 nuclear weapons each. In 1962, the two superpowers engaged in a standoff over the stationing of Soviet missiles in Cuba, which brought the world close to a nuclear exchange. Still, nuclear weapons have not been used since WWII, and during the Cold War and after the opposing powers have implicitly recognized a doctrine of …

-they are deterred from attacking each other because doing so would mean their own destruction

Non-Proliferation Treaty

Starting with the____________________ in 1968 there have been significant efforts to control the spread and types of nuclear weapons.

Vertical proliferation 

weapons is the stockpiling of weapons within a country

Horizontal proliferation

is the spread of weapons from one country to another

the U.S.

Vertical: With the goal of enhancing their hard power and establishing deterrence, countries will often spend significantly on their weapons arsenals. What country is by far the world’s largest military spender, spending over $900 billion in 2023 (see Chart 1). This amount of expenditure is roughly equivalent to that of the next 10 countries combined, and 37% of total global military spending, which was almost $2.5 trillion in 2023.

arms races, instability, and an inclination to use stockpiles, making conflict more likely.

Vertical: Since Eisenhower’s farewell speech, one line of research with respect to arms manufacturing and buildups has been whether more arms means more wars.The broad point in these works is that stockpiling arms—meant as a deterrent—might instead lead to …

“guns versus butter” debate

Others have examined how military spending can reduce spending on education, health, infrastructure, and other social programs. Often referred to as what debate, the concern here is that excessive defense spending undermines investments that might result in longer-term benefits for society

Revolution in Military Affairs

In the early 2000s, many began to examine the complex ___________________ (RMA), or the dramatic technological advancements in weaponry and military systems seen in recent decades. The RMA has helped reshaped militaries and military doctrines, often leading to increased military spending as countries (and increasingly non-state actors) compete for technological advantage

US, UK, France, Russia, China, India, Pakistan, North Kore, and Israel 

Of course, it is not just conventional weapons that can be stockpiled. Nine countries currently have nuclear arsenals: 

-the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council (often called the P5, see Unit 2), plus four additional states.

Iran

North Korea’s nuclear program has been a major international concern since the 1990s and, as a result, the repressive authoritarian state has often faced significant internation sanctions. Still, North Korea completed its first successful nuclear test in 2006 and has worked since to expand and improve its capabilities. In addition to the nine known nuclear states, ___ effort to develop nuclear weapons has also led to significant international sanctions and unease.

5,000

At the height of the Cold War, the U.S. and U.S.S.R. each had between 30,000 and 40,000 nuclear weapons, but that number has since dropped to more than ____ each

This type of warfare targets computers and computer-enabled systems, is generally considered “non-kinetic” (meaning it does not involve direct physical force), and, as yet, is not tied to international norms or agreements. Even defining this warfare has proven problematic.

Defining Cyber warfare 

Does this new category mean only digital attacks using computer and computer-enabled systems, or are AI-enabled weapons (from drones to unmanned tanks), which can cause tremendous physical harm, also part of this new type of combat? Should continuing Russia, Iranian, and Chinese attempts to manipulate and divide U.S., European, and other citizens through misinformation on digital platforms be considered warfare of one state on another?

key examples of major cyber attacks

-the 2010 Stuxnet attack on Iran, where the U.S. and Israel targeted the development of nuclear centrifuges

-multiple Russian digital attacks on Ukrainian businesses and infrastructure since 2014

-Russia’s 2020 “SolarWinds” attack infiltrating U.S. federal agencies; amongst many others.

Anonymous 

Importantly, while globalization and modern technology are clearly opening new areas of concern and possible confrontation between states, cyber capabilities are clearly proliferating to more than just state actors. To cite one example, the decentralized “hacktivist collective” known as ________ has attacked the terrorist group ISIS (also known as the Islamic State), Russia (after its invasion of Ukraine), and multiple Western targets given its own loose and sometimes contradictory principles.

70%

In line with President Eisenhower’s points noted above, arms manufacturers have become intertwined with domestic jobs and politics, with their profit motive altering the socio-political landscape. As seen in Chart 3, five arms exporters controlled __% of global arms sales in 2023.

30%

The United States, by far the world’s largest arms exporter, saw more than two thirds of its 2023 sales spread across 10 countries (Chart 4). More than __% of U.S. arms sales are in the Middle East, one of the most conflict-prone regions in the world.

2nd

Ukraine, which in 2021 was not in the top 20 of U.S. arms recipients, moved into __ place in 2023, just behind Saudi Arabia.

A key example of the horizontal spread of nuclear weapons capability can be seen in the spread of uranium enrichment components and knowhow from Pakistan to North Korea, Iran, and Libya, but the ongoing possibility has been a subject of intense international concern for many decades. Countries might seek to join the nuclear club to strengthen their security or for the prestige of joining the “great powers,” even though some have determined this step might be ill-advised because of economic considerations, regional dynamics, or international pressures and agreements.

non-state 

Another central area of concern is the spread of nuclear capability to ______ actors, such as al Qaeda or the Islamic State. These actors may not have the ability to fully develop nuclear weapons, but they may be able to put together “dirty bombs,” where conventional explosives are combined with radioactive materials. To mitigate such risks, there have been international efforts to secure radioactive materials and monitor their use, but the threat persists. Indeed, the intrinsic dangers associated with the spread of WMDs have resulted in significant efforts to control their proliferation.

1962 Cuban Missile Crisis

highlighted the catastrophic repercussions of a nuclear exchange, prompting arms control efforts even at the height of the Cold War

1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation

Arguably the most important of these effort

-sought to limit the spread of nuclear weapons beyond the five permanent members of the UN Security Council

-In this agreement, the P5 agreed not to transfer nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons technology to non-nuclear states, and the other signatories agreed not to develop nuclear weapons programs.

-In return, the P5 agreed to assist non-nuclear weapons states with their nuclear energy programs (which require lower uranium enrichment levels) and to work toward nuclear disarmament and the eventual elimination of nuclear weapons under international supervision

-extended indefinitely in 1995 and remains a cornerstone of nuclear non-proliferation efforts.

Iran 

Still, India, Pakistan, and Israel have never signed the treaty, and North Korea withdrew in 2003. ___ is one of the treaty’s 191 signatories, and though it claims that its nuclear program is for peaceful purposes, it has enriched uranium to levels far surpassing what is needed for nuclear energy purposes, leading to international sanctions and intermittent negotiations.

Military spending can reduce spending on programs that might result in longer-term benefits for society (“guns versus butter”)

Stockpiling arms might lead to arms races and instability¸ making conflict more likely

Why are arms buildups an important international concern

Horizontal

_______ proliferation is when one state steals weapons technology from another state

Truman; Eisenhower 

At the end of WWII, President ___________ made the decision to use the atomic bomb. After WWII, President __________ warned of the dangers and necessity of developing a “military industrial complex

conventional weapons

-Are often readily available in international markets¸ particularly SALWs

-Are the most used weapons in the world

-Are the oldest type of weapons in the world

U.S.

What country:

Spends more than eight times on its military than does Russia

Accounts for roughly 37% of total global military spending

Is by far the world’s largest exporter of arms

Spends roughly the equivalent on its military as the next 10 countries combined

Spends more than three times on its military than does China

Almost $2.5 trillion dollars

What was total global military spending in 2023?

Saudi Arabia

Who was the biggest customer for U.S. weapons in 2023?

Anthrax

What biological weapons agent was sent through the U.S. mail to members of the U.S. government and media after the September 11 attacks?

horizontal proliferation of nuclear weapons during the Cold War

Quest for security and prestige

Regional competition (rivalry between neighbors)

Superpower rivalry

Where influences for what? 

voluntarily gave up their nuclear weapons or programs

Kazakhstan, Belarus, Argentina, South Africa, Libya, Ukraine, Brazil have what in common

• START I and New START

help reduce the number of U.S. and Soviet/Russian strategic nuclear weapons and weapons launchers

Which of the following are key provisions of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty

All nuclear weapons states will pursue eventual nuclear disarmament

States without nuclear weapons will not try to make or otherwise obtain nuclear weapons

Nuclear weapons states will not transfer nuclear weapons to other states

What treaty is this