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Federalism

The division of power between a central (federal) government and regional (state) governments.

Separation of Powers

The division of government responsibilities into distinct branches (Legislative, Executive, Judicial).

Checks and Balances

Mechanisms through which each branch can limit the power of the others (e.g., the Presidential Veto or Judicial Review).

Supremacy Clause (Article VI)

Establishes that the Constitution and federal laws take precedence over state laws.

Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause)

Grants Congress the power to pass all laws 'necessary and proper' for carrying out its enumerated powers.

Judicial Review

The power of the courts to declare legislative or executive acts unconstitutional (Marbury v. Madison).

Selective Incorporation

The process by which the Supreme Court has applied specific liberties in the Bill of Rights to the states via the 14th Amendment.

Establishment Clause

Prohibits the government from establishing an official religion or favoring one over another.

Free Exercise Clause

Protects a citizen's right to believe and practice their religion as they choose.

Strict Scrutiny

The highest level of judicial review; used for cases involving race, religion, or state-level alienage.

Intermediate Scrutiny

Used for gender-based classifications.

Rational Basis Test

The lowest level of review; used for age, wealth, or federal-level alienage.

Exclusionary Rule

A law that prohibits the use of illegally obtained evidence in a criminal trial (Mapp v. Ohio).

Filibuster

A tactic used in the Senate to delay or block a vote on a bill by speaking for an extended period.

Cloture

A procedure for ending a filibuster and taking a vote; requires 60 votes in the Senate.

House Rules Committee

The 'Traffic Cop' of the House that sets the terms for debate and amendments on a bill.

Delegate Model

A representative who votes according to the preferences of their constituents.

Trustee Model

A representative who votes based on what they think is best for their constituents.

Pigeonholing

When a committee chair ignores a bill, effectively killing it in committee.

The Two Presidencies Thesis

The idea that there are two versions of the president: one who is constrained in domestic policy and one who is powerful in foreign policy.

Inherent Powers

Powers claimed by a president that are not expressed in the Constitution but are inferred from it.

Agenda Setting

The media's power to influence which issues the public thinks are important.

Framing

The power of the media to influence how events and issues are interpreted (the 'angle').

Priming

Preparing the public to use specific issues as a benchmark for evaluating a political leader.

Selective Exposure

The tendency of individuals to seek out information that aligns with their pre-existing beliefs.

Calculus of Voting

The formula (V = pB - C + D) explaining why people vote; focuses on costs, benefits, and duty.

The Free Rider Problem

When people enjoy the benefits of a group's efforts without contributing (paying dues or volunteering).

Iron Triangle

A stable, three-way relationship between a Congressional committee, an executive agency, and an interest group.

Issue Network

A loose, complex, and temporary web of people (journalists, academics, officials) involved in a policy area.

Pluralism

The theory that all interests are and should be free to compete for influence.

Hyperpluralism

The theory that there are so many strong groups that the government is pulled in too many directions, leading to gridlock.

Standard of Proof

The level of certainty needed to win a case.

Criminal

Beyond a reasonable doubt (99%+).

Civil

Preponderance of the evidence (51%+).

Plenary Power

The complete and absolute power of the federal government over a specific area (like immigration).