Functional Human Anatomy Final (new material only)

Rutgers Functional Human Anatomy Final, based on Rudy's study guide, contains endocrine system, urinary system, axial musculature, upper extremity skeleton, upper extremity musculature, lower extremity skeleton, lower extremity musculature, reproductive system, pregnancy + delivery

Endocrine System

this system secretes hormones into the bloodstream to maintain homeostasis

Hormones

chemical messengers that act upon effectors to regulate bodily functions

• In order to create a response, a specific one must bind to a specific receptor

endocrine cells

located in a gland or gland-like structure; release and produce hormones

main endocrine organs

pituitary gland, hypothalamus, thyroid gland, adrenal gland, pineal gland, parathyroid gland, pancreas

pituitary gland

main endocrine structure located in the brain inferior to hypothalamus

• oxytocin + antidiuretic hormone produced by the hypothalamus are released HERE

• (2)

what does the pituitary gland secrete in the anterior lobe?

• secretes ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)

• TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone)

• GH (growth hormone)

• PRL (prolactin)

• FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone)

• LH (luteinizing hormone)

• MSH (megalocyte-stimulating hormone)

what does the pituitary gland secrete in the posterior lobe?

• secretes OXT (oxytocin)

• ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

a hormone that targets your kidneys

• it works to reabsorb water to increase blood volume and blood pressure

oxytocin (OXT)

• a hormone that in females targets the mammary glands and the uterus causing milk ejection in the mammary gland + uterine wall contraction

• in males it targets the prostate gland + ductus deferens leading to contractions of both of these structures

neurohypophysis

posterior pituitary gland

adenohypophysis

anterior pituitary gland

hypothalamus

main endocrine structure located in the brain inferior to thalamus and superior to pituitary gland

• a key organ that serves as link between neural + endocrine system

• oxytocin + antidiuretic hormone are produced HERE but then are released in the posterior pituitary gland

• preganglionic neurons that start HERE synapse on the adrenal medulla

• (1)

what does the hypothalamus secrete?

• ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

• OXY (oxytocin)

• regulatory hormones

thyroid gland

main endocrine structure located on the anterior side of the neck (3)

what does the thyroid secrete?

• T4 (Thyroxine)

• T3 (Trilodothyrine)

• CT (Calcitonin)

T3 (Trilodothyronine) + T4 (Thyroxine)

these hormones influence metabolism

Calcitonin

 a hormone that works to lower blood calcium levels

adrenal gland

main endocrine structure located on top of the kidneys

• preganglionic neurons starting in the hypothalamus synapse HERE

• have a pyramidal shape

• (4)

adrenal cortex

outer portion of adrenal gland

adrenal medulla

inner portion of adrenal gland

what does the medulla of the adrenal gland secrete?

• E (epinephrine)

• NE (norepinephrine)

what does the cortex of the adrenal gland secrete?

• Cortisol

• Corticosterone

• Aldosterone

• Androgens

cortisol

a hormone that works to increase blood sugar so that we have energy to respond to internal + external stresses

aldosterone

a hormone that helps promote water retention to increase blood volume + blood pressure

androgens

these are sex hormones (estrogen + testosterone)

pineal gland

main endocrine structure located near the epithalamus in the brain (6)

what does the pineal gland secrete?

melatonin

parathyroid gland

main endocrine structure located on the posterior side of the neck, has 4 nodules (7)

what does the parathyroid gland secrete?

PTH (Parathyroid Hormone)

PTH (Parathyroid Hormone)

a hormone that works to increase blood calcium levels

pancreas

main endocrine structure located in the abdomen that relies on the bloodstream to move the hormones

• it is also an exocrine gland that relies on the ducts to move its products within HERE

• sits inside the curve of the duodenum (5)

what does the pancreas secrete?

insulin, glucagon

glucagon

a hormone that works to increase blood sugar levels

insulin

a hormone that works to decrease blood sugar levels

secondary endocrine organs

heart, thymus, adipose tissue, digestive tract, kidneys, gonads

kidneys

this secondary endocrine structure is located on either side of your spine below the ribcage; in the retroperitoneal space of abdominal cavity

• regulates blood calcium levels

• produces urine (start of urine flow)

• most superior large structure of urinary tract

what does the kidneys secrete?

renin, erythropoietin (EPO)

renin

a hormone that stimulates a series of steps that ultimately lead to the production/release of aldosterone by the adrenal cortex, it works to increase sodium and water retention (response to low blood pressure)

How Does the Body Respond to Low Blood Pressure?

• (1) The kidneys secrete renin

• (2) renin stimulates steps

• (3) production/release of aldosterone by adrenal cortex

• (4) increases sodium + water retention

erythropoietin (EPO)

a hormone that stimulates the creation of more red blood cells so that we can carry more oxygen in the body

how does the body respond to low calcium?

• (1) sunlight converts a hormone into inactive vitamin D3

• (2) parathyroid hormone targets the kidneys 

• (3) kidney cells convert Vitamin D3 into its active form

• (4) active vitamin D3 is released + causes the small intestine to absorb more calcium ions into the bloodstream

target cells

they contain hormone receptors

maintaining electrolyte and fluid balance

function of urinary system

eliminating wasters from the body

function of urinary system

regulating blood volume + blood pressure

function of urinary system

maintaining acid/base balance in the body

function of urinary system

structures in the urinary tract

kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra

1st Urine Flow Location

kidney

2nd Urine Flow Location

Ureter

3rd Urine Flow Location

urinary bladder

4th Urine Flow Location

Urethra

1st Urine Flow Location in Kidney

minor calyx

2nd Urine Flow Location in Kidney

major calyx

3rd Urine Flow Location in Kidney

renal pelvis

4th Urine Flow Location in Kidney

urethra

renal/fibrous capsule

innermost protective layer of kidney

Perirenal Fat

middle of kidney protective layer

adrenal fascia

outermost kidney protective layer

renal artery

brings oxygenated blood to kidney (1)

renal vein

brings deoxygenated blood away from kidney (2)

hilum

where the renal artery, renal vein, and ureter physically link up with the kidney (2)

minor calyx

smallest branch in the kidney, urine enters here first in kidney (5)

major calyx

bigger branch in the kidney, urine enters her after minor calyx in kidney (6)

renal pelvis

big trunk branch in the kidney leading to ureter, urine enters here after major calyx and passes it to ureter (1)

renal pyramid

triangle structures in kidney (4)

renal column

area between renal pyramids (7)

segmental arteries

the branch off renal arteries (3)

interlobar arteries

the arteries that curve around the renal pyramids  from the segmental arteries (4)

arcuate arteries

the vessels that branch after the interlobar arteries (5)

cortical radiate arteries

thin vessels branching from arcuate arteries (6)

afferent arterioles

the tiny stems branching from cortical radiate arteries; in nephron (7)

efferent arterioles

stem from glomerus; in nephron

peritubular capillaries

stem from efferent arterioles; where nutrient exchange happens; in nephron

venules

stems from peritubular capillaries; blood is officially deoxygenated

cortical radiate veins

stems from venules, vessels getting bigger (13)

arcuate veins

stem from cortical radiate veins, on the end of the renal pyramid (14)

interlobar vein

stems from arcuate veins, all around renal pyramid (15)

nephron

fundamental filtering unit of a kidney, leads  into the collect system

renal corpuscle

in nephron, consists of glomerular capillaries + glomerular capsule

glomerulus/Bowman’s capsule

a small capillary bed in close proximity to the Bowman’s capsule of the nephron (8)

• afferent arteriole brings oxygenated blood here

• efferent arteriole takes deoxygenated blood away from her

renal tubule

in nephron, consists of proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct

proximal convoluted tubule

the first part of the renal tubule (1)

descending/ascending limbs of nephron loop

the middle part of the renal tubule (3)

distal convoluted tubule

the last part of the renal tubule before the collecting duct (2)

collecting duct

apart of collecting system, multiple of these channel urine toward a minor calyx (4)

ureter

second most superior large structure of urinary tract; transports urine toward the urinary bladder (3)

urinary bladder

second most inferior structure of urinary tract, located superiorly to public symphysis; temporarily stores urine prior to elimination (1)

detrusor

smooth muscle found in the wall of the urinary bladder (2)

urethra

most inferior structure of urinary tract; conducts urine to exterior (semen too in males) (4)

internal urethral sphincter

made of smooth muscle, involuntary contacts to stop urine flow (5)

external urethral sphincter

made of skeletal muscle, voluntary contracts to stop urine (6)

pleyogram

 a diagnostic medical image showing the main urinary structures

• It can help visualize blockages + narrowing along parts of the urinary tract

female body urinary structures

short urethra, bladder is anterior to uterus + vagina, ureter pass near cervix

male body urinary structures

long urethra, bladder is anterior to the rectum, ureter is posterior to vas deferens

LOSE

Urethral sphincters _____ muscle tone as we age.

INCREASES

The risk of infection _____ as we age due to urine retention

bones of axial skeleton

skull, sternum, ribs, vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx

occipitofrontalis location

located from the forehead over top of the head to the back (1)

occipitofrontalis function

raise eyebrows, wiggle scalp + ears

orbicularis oculi location

around the eyes (2)